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Psych 101
Neurons
nerve cells; receive, integrate, and transmit information
Sensory neurons
detect info from the physical world and pass it along to the brain
Somatosensory nerves
sensory nerves that provide info from the skin & muscles
Motor neurons
direct muscles, producing movement
Interneurons
act as relay stations facilitating communication between sensory and motor neurons
Dendrites
act as relay stations facilitating communication between sensory and motor neurons
Cell body
where info received via the dendrites from neurons is collected and integrated
Axon
a long narrow outgrowth on the neuron where electrical impulses travel
Terminal buttons
at the end of each axon, send siSygnals to other neurons
Synapse
the site where chemical communication occurs between neurons
Myelin sheath
covers axon of some neurons, helps speed up neural impulses
Electrical charge of neurons at rest
positive outside
negative insideAc
Action potential
electric signal that sends info to other neurons
fires when excitatory input reaches neuron’s threshold
all-or-none response
Synaptic transmission
receptors are specialized so they only respond to specific transmitters
Reuptake
after neurotransmitters are released, neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons; neurotransmitter is then released into the synapse and taken back for recycling
Autoreception
when neurotransmitters bind with receptors on the presynaptic neuron; autoreceptors detect excess neurotransmitters and signal the presynaptic neuron to stop releasing the transmitter
Neurotransmitter
chemicals that are made in the axon or cell body and stored in vesicles; influence emotion, thought, or behavior; bind to receptors on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron
Acetylcholine
neurotransmitter that aids motor control, learning, memory, sleep, and dreamingN
Norepinephrine
neurotransmitter that controls arousal, vigilance, attention
Serotonin
neurotransmitter that controls emotional states, impulsivity, and dreaming
Dopamine
neurotransmitter that controls reward & motivation
GABA
neurotransmitter that reduces anxiety by inhibiting action potentials
Glutamate
neurotransmitter that enhances action potential and controls learning & memory
Endorphins
neurotransmitter that controls pain reduction & reward
Enzyme deactivation
occurs when an enzyme destroys the neurotransmitter in the synapse
Agonist
enhance neurotransmitters
Antagonist
inhibits neurotransmitters
EEG
measures electrical activity of the brain using electrodes recorded from the scalp (good to measure timing, bad to measure location of activity)
PET
positron emission tomography, uses injected radioactive tracer to directly measure brain activity
MRI
powerful magnets are used to briefly shift alignment of hydrogen protons in the body, measures brain activity (bad to measure timing, good to measure location)
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
fast, powerful magnet field that briefly stops brain activity in a specific area
Cerebral cortex
surface of brain
Occipital lobe
vision
Parietal lobe
touch, visuospatial processing
Temporal lobe
sound, smell, language composition, memory
Frontal lobe
motor control, executive function
Prefrontal cortex
distinguishes humans
Motor cortex
controls voluntary movements
Somatosensory cortex
processes tactile experience & body movement
Insular cortex
taste, disgust, bodily sensations of emotions
Thalamus
brain’s sensory switchboard, directs messages to all sensory areas in cortex
Hypothalamus
regulates body function & motivated behavior (hunger, thirst, sex)
Hippocampus
long-term memory formation
Amygdala
threat-related emotional processing
Basal ganglia
coordinate motor signals, risks, goals, motivation, habit formation, reward processing
Pons
in brainstem, controls sleep, arousal
Medulla
in brainstem, controls heartrate, breathing
Cerebellum
controls motor coordination & timing, motor learning
Substantia Nigra
in midbrain, controls voluntary movement, sensorimotor relay station
Central nervous system
brain & spinal cord, makes decisions
Peripheral nervous system
sensory & motor neurons that connect CNS and rest of body
Somatic nervous system
sends sensory info from skin, muscles, joints to CNS
sends motor info from CNS to skin, muscles, joints
Autonomic nervous system
regulates body’s internal environment & action
Parasympathetic nervous system
rest & digest
Sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight
Genotype
an individual’s unique genetic code
Phenotype
observable physical or psychological characteristics
Twin studies
uses sets of twins to study nature vs. nurture
Epigenetics
environmental influences can turn genes on or off
Plasticity
the brain’s ability to change in response to experience/injury
Critical periods
times during which particular experiences must occur for development to proceed normally
Genome
the blueprint of DNA in an organism
Chromosomes
pairs of structures with DNA in them (23 pairs in humans)
Consciousness
one’s moment-by-moment, subjective experiences
Qualia
subjective experiences of sensation
Change blindness
we are often “blind” to large changes in our environments
Endogenous attention
deliberate, voluntarily directed attention
Exogenous attention
when the focus of your attention is driven by a stimulus or event
Priming
recent experience with a stimulus makes it easier to respond to related stimuli (e.g., “I have to go wash up.” s__p = soap)
Subliminal perception
perceptual processing of info without conscious awareness; doesn’t affect complex behavior
Automatic processing
well-practiced skills/tasks that require very little attention (e.g., habits)
Controlled processing
tasks that require focused attention
Meditation
intense contemplation/deliberate focus that can lead to a deep sense of calmness
-Lowers blood pressure, reduces stress, increases focus
-Could slow down diminishing of brain matter (may be third factor)
Flow
a highly focused state of engagement in an enjoyable activity; awareness of self & time diminishes
Escapist activities
temporarily divert attention and enable avoidance of production
Hypnosis
changes in memory, perception, or voluntary action in response to suggestions
-Not total mind control
-Useful in pain treatment
Sociocognitive theory of hypnosis
people behave as they expect hypnotized people to behave
Neodissociation theory of hypnosis
views hypnotic state as an altered state; hypnosis is a trancelike state in which conscious awareness is separated from other aspects of consciousness
Circadian rhythms
biological patterns that occur as a function of time of day
Melatonin
sleep hormone
Stage 1 of sleep
easily woken up, unaware of sleep, beta waves
Stage 2 of sleep
less sensitive to external stimulation
Slow-wave sleep (stage 3-4)
hard to wake, deep sleep
REM sleep
sleep cycle reversing to stage 1, rapid eye movement, muscular paralysis, bizarre dreams
Activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreams
random brain activity occurs during sleep, the neural firing can activate mechanisms that normally interpret sensory input, mind tries to make sense of the sensory activity by synthesizing it with stored memories
Restorative theory of sleep
sleep allows the body, including the brain, to rest and repair itself
Circadian rhythm theory of sleep
sleep has evolved to keep animals quiet & inactive during times of day when there is the greatest danger (night)
Facilitation of learning theory of sleep
neural connections (learning) are strengthened during sleep
Insomnia
sleep disorder in which ppl’s mental health & functional ability are compromised by difficulty falling and staying asleep
Obstructive sleep apnea
sleep disorder in which ppl stop breathing for short periods during sleep because their throat closes
Narcolepsy
a rare disorder where excessive sleepiness that lasts from several seconds to minutes occur during normal waking hours
REM behavior disorder
no paralysis during REM sleep, ppl act out their dreams while sleeping
Somnambulism
sleepwalking
Unresponsive wakefulness syndrome
when people appear to have emerged from a coma, yet do not respond to external stimuli for more than a month
Minimally conscious state
when people who emerge from a coma are able to make deliberate movements
Brain death
irreversible loss of brain function
Psychoactive drugs
cause changes in mood, awareness, thoughts, feelings, or behavior; change the brain’s neurochemistry by activating neurotransmitter systems
Stimulants
increase behavioral & mental activity (e.g., cocaine, nicotine, caffeine), dopamine
Depressants
decrease behavioral & mental activity (e.g., antianxiety drugs, alcohol), stimulants
Opioids
reduce the experience of pain, bring pleasure (e.g., heroine, morphine), endorphins
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