• The Civil Rights Movement was a pivotal period in US history, marked by a series of landmark events that led to significant progress in the fight for racial equality and justice.

• This timeline details the significant civil rights movement milestones in the United States, the nonviolent struggle for legal equality and the protection of people of color's constitutional rights that began in the mid-18 to 19th century.

• Equal protection under the law, the abolition of legally sanctioned racial discrimination, equal access to public facilities, education reform, equitable housing, and the right to vote were among the movement's goals.

Emancipation Proclamation (1863)

• Issued on January 1, 1863, by President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, the Emancipation Proclamation declared the freedom of enslaved people in Confederate-controlled territories, fundamentally altering the course and purpose of the conflict.

• Although it did not apply to enslaved individuals in border states or areas already under Union control, the proclamation was a critical step toward the abolition of slavery nationwide, paving the way for the 13th Amendment, which would fully abolish slavery in the United States in 1865.

• The proclamation undermined the Confederacy by encouraging enslaved individuals to escape, weakening Southern labor systems, and reducing their ability to sustain the war effort.

• It allowed African Americans to enlist in the Union Army and Navy, leading to the recruitment of nearly 200,000 Black soldiers and sailors who played a crucial role in securing Union victories.

• Beyond its immediate impact on the Civil War, the Emancipation Proclamation had broader and more lasting implications. It shifted international public opinion, particularly in Europe, where there had been some support for the Confederacy.

• By aligning the Union cause with the fight for freedom and human rights, the Proclamation effectively deterred European powers from recognizing or supporting the Confederacy.

• In essence, the Emancipation Proclamation set the stage for the eventual passage of the 13th Amendment and marked a monumental shift in American society, helping to lay the foundation for the civil rights struggles that would continue throughout U.S. history

13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments (1865–1870)

• The 13th Amendment, which was ratified in December 1865, put an official end to centuries of authorized human bondage in the United States by outlawing slavery and involuntary servitude, unless it was used as a form of punishment for a crime. It fulfilled the promise of freedom and revolutionized the United States, marking a significant legal and moral success.

  • The Constitution was amended to conform to the principles of equality and freedom. It did not, however, address the difficulties in reintegrating millions of former slaves into society, since they continued to experience systemic racism and economic exploitation after being freed.

• The 14th amendment (1868) was enacted in 1868, granting citizenship to anybody born or naturalized in the United States, including those who had previously been enslaved. Its Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses served as a cornerstone for civil rights cases, establishing the framework for subsequent battles against inequality, discrimination, and segregation.

  • It greatly increased the federal government's involvement in defending individual liberties, especially for underrepresented groups, by mandating that states protect the rights of all individuals.

  • The 14th Amendment served as the foundation for various significant civil rights cases during the 20th century. Notably, it served as the foundation for Roe v. Wade (1973), which expanded protections for individual liberties, and Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which abolished racial segregation in public schools.

• The 15th Amendment, which was ratified in 1870, forbade the federal and state governments from denying people the ability to vote on the grounds of race, color, or prior slavery. It was a significant step in granting African American men access to democracy and reaffirming their place as active members of the political process in the country.

  • However, systemic obstacles that disenfranchised many Black voters, especially in the South, including literacy tests, poll taxes, and violence, lessened its impact.

The Civil Rights Cases (1883)

• In the South, where Jim Crow laws were implemented to promote racial segregation and deny Black citizens the right to vote, African Americans faced an even more hostile legal environment after the Civil Rights Cases ruling.

• The Court's 1883 decision essentially removed the possibility of federal action, allowing private companies—such as lodging facilities, dining establishments, and transportation providers—to carry on with their racial discrimination practices.

• Relegating African Americans to second-class citizenship for years, this decision severely undermined the gains won during Reconstruction and reaffirmed the idea that racial segregation was acceptable in American society.

• The ruling prompted a renewed dedication among African American activists and legal advocates to defend their rights in the courts and on the streets, despite the losses brought about by the Civil Rights Cases.

• The foundation for the legal proceedings that would ultimately end discrimination and segregation, including the eventual triumph in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, would be laid over the course of the following few decades by individuals like Thurgood Marshall, Booker T. Washington, and W.E.B. Du Bois.

• Though it also prepared the ground for the court cases that would result in the Civil Rights Movement's victories, the years following the Civil Rights Cases were a time of social and political stagnation.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

• Plessy v. Ferguson, ruled by the Supreme Court in 1896, had a significant and long-lasting impact on institutionalized racism and the legal foundation of Jim Crow laws in the US.

• Based on the doctrine of "separate but equal," the Court ruled 7-1 in favor of racial segregation, holding that state laws mandating segregation in public places were constitutional as long as the facilities were "equal" in quality.

• This decision, based on the arrest of Homer Plessy, a man of mixed race who deliberately challenged Louisiana's segregation laws by sitting in a "whites-only" railroad car, entrenched a system of racial separation across the country, particularly in the South.

• The Court argued that segregation could be legal as long as it was "equal," but in reality, this merely served to strengthen and legitimize racial divisions in American society. The Jim Crow laws that were already widely practiced in the South were given legal support by Plessy v. Ferguson, which made racial segregation official in public places including theaters, restaurants, bathrooms, and schools.

• Although these rules required racial segregation in public places, in reality, African Americans frequently received worse accommodations, resources, and services than white people.

• Plessy v. Ferguson reinforced systemic racism, bolstered Jim Crow laws in the South, and remained a legal precedent for nearly six decades until it was overturned by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.

Shelley v. Kraemer (1948)

• Despite making it clear that courts could not enforce racial covenants in Shelley v. Kraemer, the Supreme Court's ruling did not put an end to the widespread practice of housing discrimination.

• Rather, it merely forced this kind of discrimination into less obvious forms, such as redlining, where banks and insurance providers routinely denied loans or insurance to residents of communities with a high concentration of Black people.

• Private property owners also persisted in enforcing segregation through unofficial channels, such as racial steering by real estate brokers or societal pressure.

• Moreover, economic inequities that would last throughout the 20th century were maintained by these tactics, which kept housing markets racially segregated and prohibited African Americans from becoming wealthy through homeownership.

• Although the legal environment changed as a result of the Shelley v. Kraemer case, the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which would more widely ban housing discrimination, would have the most influence.

• Shelley v. Kraemer, however, was a significant step in acknowledging that housing laws ought to be fair and not be employed as instruments of racial discrimination.

• The case played a crucial role in furthering the civil rights movement and laying the groundwork for further challenges to systemic segregation, especially in light of the housing boom that followed World War II.

Brown vs. Board of Education (1954)

• In Brown v. Board of Education, decided in 1954, the Supreme Court overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine from Plessy v. Ferguson, holding that racial segregation in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

• A fundamental change in American constitutional law was brought about by the ruling, which ruled that state-sponsored segregation was fundamentally unfair.

• Parents like Oliver Brown brought the case on behalf of their kids, arguing that segregation hurt Black students by creating feelings of inferiority and inequality.

• Among the supporting data were studies that demonstrated the detrimental psychological impacts of child isolation, especially the well-known Clark doll experiments.

• Despite strong opposition to its implementation, this unanimous ruling served as a pillar of the civil rights movement and sparked attempts to end segregation across the country. Numerous Southern states postponed or disobeyed desegregation initiatives, necessitating further court cases and federal involvement.

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)

• Sparked by Rosa Parks' arrest on December 1, 1955, for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white passenger, the Montgomery Bus Boycott became a pivotal event in the civil rights movement. Parks’ act of defiance was a deliberate stand against the injustice of segregation and inspired widespread support from the African American community.

• For over a year, African Americans in Montgomery, Alabama, organized and refused to use the city buses, leading to significant economic pressure on the bus system. With 75% of bus riders being Black, the boycott crippled the transit system financially.

• The movement was supported through organized carpools, coordinated by groups like the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), and through the sheer determination of individuals who walked miles daily to work and school.

• The boycott culminated in a Supreme Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle (1956), which declared segregation on public buses unconstitutional, effectively ending the practice in Montgomery.

• This victory highlighted the power of nonviolent resistance and mass mobilization, elevating leaders like Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., who emerged as a prominent voice for justice during the boycott.

• It sparked an upsurge of parallel campaigns around the nation and marked an important turning point in the Civil Rights Movement. It had a direct impact on subsequent significant civil rights actions, like freedom rides and sit-ins, which turned into essential tactics in the fight for racial equality.

• By opposing segregation in public areas and transit, these efforts broadened the movement and helped bring about important social and legislative reforms in the years that followed.

Nine Black Students Enter Little Rock's Central High School (1957)

• The Little Rock Integration Crisis of 1957 was a pivotal moment that symbolized the intense opposition to desegregation and the fight for equality in public education. After the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional in 1954, the crisis broke out. Desegregation was opposed by other southern states, including Arkansas, in spite of this ruling.

• In September 1957, the Little Rock Nine, a group of nine African American students, were selected to integrate Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. They were chosen after a court ruling required the school to admit Black students, yet the local government and white citizens strongly opposed integration.

  • May 1957: The Little Rock School Board began planning for integration, initially aiming for a gradual approach, but by September, the board had selected nine students to integrate Central High.

  • September 4, 1957: Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas ordered the state National Guard to prohibit the Black students from accessing the school on the opening day of classes, citing the need to keep the peace. The crisis of integration started at this point.

  • September 23, 1957: President Dwight D. Eisenhower stepped in after a federal judge ruled that the students had to be permitted in. In order to protect children and enforce the desegregation order, he dispatched 1,000 soldiers of the 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock.

  • September 25, 1957: With the help of federal troops, the Little Rock Nine eventually made their way into Central High. As they attempted to attend classes, they encountered violent protests, verbal abuse, and physical threats. Despite the difficult circumstances, the students showed extraordinary courage.

• The violent opposition to racial equality and the South's long-standing antagonism to desegregation were brought to light by the “integration crisis”. It marked the turning point in the Civil Rights Movement by bringing the efforts of African Americans for equal rights and education to the attention of the country.

The Presidential Election of 1960

• Highlighted a dramatic movement in Black voters' political affiliation, with their voting patterns starting to move toward the Democratic Party, which has long-term effects on American politics. Many African Americans had previously favored the Republican Party before this election, in large part because of the party's affiliation to Abraham Lincoln, the president who outlawed slavery.

• The 1960 presidential election was among the most closely contested in history. Both Democrat John F. Kennedy and Republican Richard M. Nixon largely shied away from civil rights issues during the campaign out of concern for offending Southern supporters.

• During a sit-in in Atlanta in October of that year, civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr. was taken into custody. As word reached out, two Kennedy campaign advisers, Sargent Shriver and Harris Wofford, set up the candidate to call King's wife, Coretta Scott King, to express sympathy. Robert Kennedy called the case's judge in the meanwhile.

• Martin Luther King, Sr. declared, "It's time for all of us to take off our Nixon button," following the Kennedy brothers' demonstration of unity. Baseball legend Jackie Robinson and other African Americans had been backing the Republican nominee since state Democratic parties dominated the political process in the South.

• This election marked a pivotal shift in the political alignment of African Americans. The Democratic Party's growing commitment to civil rights, especially under Kennedy's leadership, was seen as a major turning point.

• African American votes had been drawn to Republicans from the era of the Fifteenth Amendment, emancipation, and Abraham Lincoln. Kennedy won the presidency with 68 percent of the black vote, ending that history of support.

Interstate Travel Desegregation (1960)

• Civil rights campaigners expressed disappointment that President John F. Kennedy did not propose any new legislation on the subject in the months after his inauguration.

• In December 1960, however, the Supreme Court ruled that integration was mandatory for interstate buses and bus terminals.

• Members of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) were motivated to use Greyhound buses from Washington, D.C. to Louisiana's New Orleans by this legal development. The Freedom Riders, a group of white and black volunteers, would look into whether the law would be upheld in the Jim Crow region.

• The Freedom Riders faced violent opposition from segregationists during their journey through the South. The first incident occurred in Anniston, Alabama, where a bus was attacked by white supremacists. The violence escalated, with local law enforcement hesitant to intervene. In Montgomery, Alabama, the activists were severely beaten.

• The U.S. government intervened in the violence against the Freedom Riders, under Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy. The Kennedy administration pushed for new regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate travel facilities, and the U.S. Department of Justice took an active role in protecting the riders. Federal marshals and FBI agents were sent to enforce the laws, ensuring the violence was somewhat contained.

• James Farmer, the director of CORE, stated, "What we had to do was to make it more dangerous politically for the federal government not to enforce federal law than it would be for them to enforce federal law. This was not civil disobedience really, because we would be merely doing what the Supreme Court said we had a right to do."

• The Freedom Riders' violent protests sparked public support for civil rights, leading to increased federal intervention and a shift in federal policy. The violence highlighted segregation and injustice, and the government's protection of the Freedom Riders marked the beginning of greater federal enforcement of civil rights protections in the South.

The March on Washington (1963)

• In 1925, Philip Randolph, an African American activist, established the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, a union that fought for equality. To demand jobs for African Americans in the growing wartime economy, he organized a march on Washington in 1941.

• President Franklin D. Roosevelt agreed to ban discrimination by the government or defense companies, thus that protest was called off. Twenty years later, Randolph concluded that in order to accelerate the nation's rate of change, a march was imperative.

• John F. Kennedy requested that the march be called off because he believed it would negatively impact his civil rights bills. But when Kennedy saw Randolph's determination, he supported the act of demonstration.

• More than twice as many black and white people than anticipated marched to the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., on August 28, 1963, totaling a quarter of a million. in support of the civil rights law, unity, and racial harmony. Before SNCC's John Lewis and other speakers, the audience was treated to performances by folk artists Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, and others.

• In one of his most well-known addresses, civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr. encouraged the gathered audience, "I have a dream."

Civil Rights Act of 1964

• One of the primary goals of the 1963 March on Washington was to support a federal Civil Rights Act. Prior to his assassination, President John F. Kennedy had introduced the bill.

• On July 2, 1964, Lyndon B. Johnson, his successor, signed it into law. It accomplished many of the intended objectives of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, an act passed during the Reconstruction era but quickly abolished.

• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 established a legal precedent by utilizing federal law to combat discrimination in public and private life. This act marked a significant shift from local activism and state-level actions to federal commitment to equality.

• This act prohibited discrimination on the grounds of race, color, religion, or national origin in public establishments, including theaters, hotels, and restaurants. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was created under the act to assist in enforcing the law, which also prohibited discrimination in employment practices.

• It laid the groundwork for future civil rights legislation, including the Voting Rights Act of 1965, Fair Housing Act of 1968, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967.

• Even though the law tried to establish fair election procedures, it was unable to address every method of denying Black people the right to vote; a thorough solution would need to be provided by the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 had one significant flaw. It didn't include every tactic white people have employed, both legal and illegal, to consistently deny Black people the ability to vote in municipal and state elections.

• In March 1965, Martin Luther King, Jr. led a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, as legislation to correct this omission made its way through Congress. At the end, activists handed a petition to Governor George Wallace, requesting that he remove barriers to voter registration.

• The Voting Rights Act removed barriers to African Americans' voting rights, including the elimination of literacy tests and poll taxes, which were used to disqualify African Americans due to segregation.

• The Act also introduced preclearance provisions, requiring federal approval for state or local governments with a history of voting discrimination, particularly in the South.

• This ensured that new discriminatory measures were implemented without federal scrutiny. Additionally, the Act provided language assistance to non-English speakers, ensuring all eligible citizens could participate in elections. These measures removed significant barriers to voting for African Americans, promoting their rights and ensuring their participation in elections.

• The Voting Rights Act of 1965 significantly impacted African American voter participation, especially in Southern states where many Black citizens were excluded from the electoral process. The Act eliminated discriminatory practices, leading to increased voter registration and greater political representation.

• It also fostered greater political engagement among African Americans, allowing them to elect officials who represented their interests and addressed issues like segregation, economic inequality, and civil rights protections.

• Following the national news coverage of the civil rights movement's heroes, Americans learned about the murder of Viola Liuzzo, a white Michigan homemaker who had volunteered for the cause, by the Ku Klux Klan. The Voting Rights Act gained more support.

• President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the legislation into law on August 6, 1965, alongside Rosa Parks, an activist with the Alabama NAACP.

• In describing the significance of the law, Johnson stated, "The vote is the most powerful instrument ever devised by man for breaking down injustice and destroying the terrible walls which imprison men because they are different from other men."

Loving v. Virginia (1967)

• The Loving v. Virginia case was a turning point in the larger struggle against racial discrimination and segregation, in addition to legalizing interracial marriage.

• In upholding the values of equality and human dignity, the Supreme Court upheld the fundamental unconstitutionality of legislation based on racial classifications by overturning prohibitions on interracial marriage.

• Despite being triumphant, the Loving vs. Virginia decision served as a reminder of how difficult it will be to eradicate racial discrimination. Also, the nationwide legalization of interracial marriage, opinions and social acceptability of interracial couples did not immediately change.

• Prejudices persisted in many areas, and couples continued to experience discrimination in many ways. Nonetheless, Loving contributed to the establishment of a legal precedent that would be used in subsequent racial equality cases, and its impact went beyond marriage, helping to advance more general cultural changes in American society toward equality and acceptance.

• The ruling offered hope for the future by implying that racial justice and equality could be achieved through the judicial system.

• The case was heard during the height of the Civil Rights Movement, and the decision contributed to the overturning of the laws that upheld racial inequality.

• In a fundamental and intimate sense, the Loving ruling advanced the cause of racial equality by reaffirming that the government had no authority to meddle in the private affairs of its citizens on the basis of race.