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Neural Signals
Electrical impulses that transmit information within the nervous system.
Resting Potential
The electrical charge difference across a neuron's membrane when it is not actively firing, typically around -70 mV.
Action Potential
A rapid change in membrane potential that occurs when a neuron fires, resulting in a brief positive charge inside the cell.
Graded Potentials
Changes in membrane potential that vary in size and can lead to action potentials if the threshold is reached.
Sodium-Potassium Pump
A protein that actively transports Na+ out of and K+ into the neuron to maintain resting potential.
Refractory Periods
Phases after an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire (absolute refractory) or requires a stronger stimulus to fire (relative refractory).
Synapse
The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse, such as dopamine, serotonin, and GABA.
Ligands
Molecules that bind to receptors to activate or block them, including endogenous (natural) and exogenous (drugs) ligands.
EPSP (Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential)
A small local depolarization that makes a neuron more likely to fire.
IPSP (Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential)
A small local hyperpolarization that makes a neuron less likely to fire.
Myelin Sheath
A fatty layer that insulates axons, speeding up the transmission of electrical signals.
Glial Cells
Supportive cells in the nervous system that provide structure, nourishment, and protection for neurons.
Neurogenesis
The process of generating new neurons from neural stem cells.
Synaptogenesis
The formation of new synapses between neurons.
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death that occurs in the nervous system to eliminate excess neurons.
Neurotrophic Factors
Proteins that support neuron survival and growth, such as nerve growth factor (NGF).
Plasticity
The ability of the brain to change and adapt in response to experience, including the strengthening or weakening of synapses.
Addiction
A chronic disorder characterized by compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences, often involving changes in brain circuitry.
unipolar
Neuron type with a single extension, receptive and output, and travels through axon like a cable.
bipolar
Neuron type with one axon and one dendrite, usually sensory.
multipolar
Neuron type with many inputs and only one road out, slower with 10 thousand entrances for one cell.
astrocytes
Most numerous glial cells in the brain, provide support between neurons, and regulate extracellular space.
oligodendrocytes
Wrap axons with myelin sheaths, each one wrapping several axons, with gaps called nodes of Ranvier.
ependymal cells
Line ventricles, secrete and absorb spinal fluid.
microglia
Clean up dead neurons and glia, scan for abnormalities like cancer, and support immune function.
sensory neurons
Neurons that respond to environmental stimuli like light, odor, and touch.
motor neurons
Neurons that contract muscles or glands.
interneurons
Neurons that receive input from and send input to other neurons for integration.
Pyramidal cell
Type of neuron focused on, with dendritic spines exhibiting neural plasticity for learning.
synapses
Points where neurons connect, transmitting chemical and electrical information.
Central nervous system
Comprising the brain and spinal cord, providing precise control and simultaneous activity.
Sympathetic activation
Prepares the body for action, activating during stress responses.
Parasympathetic activation
Deactivates the body after stress, promoting rest and digestion.
Medial
Directional term meaning 'middle'.
Ipsilateral
Directional term meaning 'same side'.
anterior
Directional term meaning 'head end'.
proximal
Directional term meaning 'near center'.
dorsal
Directional term meaning 'towards back'.
lateral
Directional term meaning 'toward the side'.
contralateral
Directional term meaning 'opposite side'.
posterior
Directional term meaning 'tail end'.
distal
Directional term meaning 'toward periphery'.
ventral
Directional term meaning 'toward the belly'.
Coronal
Brain separation from front to back, resembling a butterfly.
Sagittal (midsagittal)
Brain separation slicing not at the midline, showing each half.
Horizontal
Brain separation from top to bottom.
Afferent
Impulses carrying sensory information into a region of interest.
Efferent
Impulses carrying motor information away from a region of interest.
White matter
Axons bundled together with myelin sheaths, appearing white.
Grey matter
Clusters of neuron cell bodies with a dark grey appearance.
Thalamus
Central brain structure responsible for relaying sensory and motor signals.
Basal ganglia
Brain region involved in motor control functions.
Limbic system
Brain system regulating emotions, emotional memory, and reactions based on emotions.
Cerebellum
Brain region responsible for motor coordination, learning, and balance.
Midbrain
Brain region housing the reticular formation responsible for sleep and arousal.
Meninges
Brain protective wrappings including dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater.
Subdural hematoma
Bleeding in the subdural space that can compress the brain, reducing survival chances.
Cerebral ventricles
Brain structures producing cerebrospinal fluid, surrounding and cushioning the brain.
Integration zone
Region within a neuron where different zones interact.
Santiago Ramon
Credited with the neuron doctrine, distinguishing between Golgi's and his neuron theories.
anterograde transport
Movement of materials from soma to terminals along microtubules using the protein kinesin.
Refractory periods
Phases of neuron activity including absolute and relative refractory phases, affecting action potential generation.
Na+ channel
Sodium channel involved in action potential generation and propagation.
Myelin
Increases speed of signal transmission and saves energy.
Periodic Paralysis
Condition where muscles can become temporarily paralyzed.
Activation Gate
A gate that fails to function properly in transmitting signals.
Genetic Defect in Na Channel
An issue in the sodium channel gene in muscle cells.
Synapses
Junctions where signals are transmitted between neurons.
Electrical Signal - Chemical Signal - Electrical Signal
The process of signal transmission at chemical synapses.
EPSP and IPSP
Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials that affect neuron membrane potential.
Reuptake
Process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them.
Neurotransmitter Degradation
Breakdown and inactivation of neurotransmitters by enzymes.
Electrical Synapses
Connections where ions flow directly between neurons without delay.
Acetylcholine Receptor
Receptor that binds acetylcholine to trigger a cellular response.
Up-Regulation
Increase in the number of receptors in response to certain stimuli.
Down-Regulation
Decrease in the number of receptors due to various factors.
Na Channel
Stays open too long, linked to epilepsy
Tonic Clinic Seizure
Involves stiffening for 20 seconds followed by jerking
Absence Seizure
Also known as petit mal seizure, characterized by stopping and staring with no muscle activity
Focal Seizure, Impaired Awareness
Occurs in one part of the brain
Myoclonic Seizure
Involves rhythmic shrugging and rapid muscle contractions on both sides of the body
Tetanus
Caused by tetanospasmin binding at synapses, leading to generalized rigidity and opisthotonus
Ionotropic Receptor
Direct receptor subtype, likened to a key in a lock
Metabotropic Receptor
Indirect receptor subtype, compared to a link between where the key is placed
Agonist
Initiates normal receptor effects, akin to using a key to open a door
Antagonist
Prevents receptor activation by other ligands, with competitive and noncompetitive types
Amino Acids
Include Glutamate, Aspartate, Glycine, and GABA, each with specific roles in neurotransmission
Dopamine
Main neurotransmitter for movement, with pathways linked to addiction, learning, and motor control
Norepinephrine
Impacts mood, arousal, and sexual functions
Serotonin
Influences sleep, sexual behavior, and anxiety
Nitric Oxide
Acts as a gas neurotransmitter, diffusing instantly and synchronizing neighboring neurons
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter with nicotinic and muscarinic receptors, affecting muscle and CNS functions
Endogenous Opiates
Include enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins, producing analgesia and well-being
Adenosine
Neuromodulator inhibiting catecholamine release, blocked by caffeine to induce arousal
Antipsychotic Drugs
Used to treat schizophrenia, typically acting as dopamine antagonists
Antidepressants
Include monoamine oxidase inhibitors and tricyclics, affecting monoamine levels in synapses
Anxiolytics
Reduce nervous system activity, with benzodiazepines acting on GABA receptors
Barbiturates
Depress neural activity by blocking sodium channels and increasing chloride ion flow
Alcohol
Has complex effects on behavior, acting as a stimulant at low doses and a sedative at higher doses
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