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motivation
the need or desire that energizes and directs behaviour
instinct theory
the view that instincts are the source of our motivations
instinct
a complex behaviour that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state/drive that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
physiological needs
a basic bodily requirement or need
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state - the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry
incentives
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behaviour
arousal theory
the idea that there is an optimal level of tension a person desires in order to be optimally motivated
yerkes-dodson law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
incentive approach
the approach that incentives are used to entice people to perform and achieve
expectancy-value theory
the theory that an individual’s motivation is determined by how much they value the goal and whether they expect to be successful
maslow’s hierarchy of needs, bottom to top
physiological, safety, belonging/love, esteem, cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization, transcendence
physiological needs
the lowest and biggest tier of maslow’s hierarchy of needs (H) - the need to satisfy hunger and thirst, as well as for shelter and warmth
need for safety
the G tier of maslow’s hierarchy of needs - the need to feel that the world is organised and predictable; the need to feel safe
need for belonging and love
the F tier of maslow’s hierarchy of needs - the need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; the need to avoid loneliness and separation
need for esteem
the E tier of maslow’s hierarchy of needs - the need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; the need for recognition and respect from others
cognitive need
the D tier of maslow’s hierarchy of needs - the need to understand the world and gain new knowledge and experiences; the need to satisfy natural curiosity
aesthetic need
the C tier of maslow’s hierarchy of needs - the need to artistically express one’s individual identity
need for self-actualization
the B tier of maslow’s hierarchy of needs - the need to live up to our fullest and unique potential
need for transcendence
the A tier of maslow’s hierarchy of needs - the need to find meaning and identity beyond the self
intrinsic motivation
the desire to engage in an activity or perform a task because it is pleasureable, without any desire for external benefits that may come from it
extrinsic motivation
the aspiration to complete a goal because of outside rewards like recognition, money, and praise
overjustification effect
the idea that being rewarded may actually diminish one’s intrinsic motivation over time
primary drives
drives to survive and thrive - related to physiological needs such as for food and water
secondary drives
learned drives from one’s experiences - may include the desire for money or to gain societal approval
need for achievement
the desire to reach goals, challenge oneself to win awards, and to be at the “top”
need for affiliation
the desire to be liked by others, to be admired, and to have social interactions
need for power
the desire to influence others, control people, and control situations
cognitive dissonance
a state in which a person’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours are not consistent or aligned with each other
self-efficacy
the belief that one is capable of accomplishing a task
how are insulin and glucose related?
increases in insulin diminish blood glucose
what functions does the hypothalamus regulate?
various body maintenance functions, including control of hunger
settling point
the level at which a person’s weight settles in response to caloric intake and expenditure
set point
the point at which your “weight thermostat” may be set - when the body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight
what neurological connection is made between eating carbs and our mood?
carbohydrates boost the neurotransmitter serotonin, which has calming effects - so, when stressed, many find it rewarding to consume carbs
key researchers in sexual motivation
alfred kinsey and william masters & collaborator virginia johnson
stages of the sexual response cycle
excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution
achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard
industrial organisational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological principles and research methods in the ordinary workplace - areas for interest include working conditions, employee evaluation, social behaviour, the relationships between managers and workers, and conflict
lateral hypothalamus role in hunger
turns hunger on
ventromedial hypothalamus role in hunger
turns hunger off
james-lange theory of emotion
the theory that our experience of emotion comes from our awareness of our physical responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus - fear follows response
cannon-bard theory of emotion
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers the emotional and physical responses - at the same time
schacter-singer two-factor theory of emotion
the theory that there are two factors to experiencing emotion; both our physical reactions and our thoughts work together to create it - two ingredients, two factors; arousal fuels emotion, cognition channels it
zajonc high-road/ledoux low-road theory of emotion
the idea that a stimulus following a “high-road” path are correlated with some emotions (especially more complex feelings such as hatred or love), and a stimulus following a “low-road” path are correlated with other emotions (like simple likes, dislikes, and fears); some of our emotional reactions involve no deliberate thinking - high = complex, low = simple
lazarus’ theory of emotion
the theory that our brain processes vast amounts of information without our conscious awareness, and that some emotional responses don’t require conscious thinking; emotions arise when we appraise an event as either dangerous or harmless - e.g. thinking the leaves rustling was a threat would make you react with fear, but if you thought it was just the wind you’d react calmly
sympathetic nervous system
triggers the fight/flight/freeze response
parasympathetic nervous system
calms the body after the fight/flight/freeze response
physiological changes that occur when the autonomic NS is aroused within the sympathetic NS
adrenal glands release stress hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine; for energy, the liver releases extra sugar into the bloodstream; to help burn the sugar, respiration increases to supply needed oxygen; heart rate and blood pressure increase; digestion slows, diverting blood from the internal organs to the muscles; pupils dilate, perspiration occurs, and blood clots quicker if injured
physiological changes that occur when the autonomic NS is aroused within the parasympathetic NS
the body is calmed, stress hormones slowly leave the bloodstream, and everything slowly reverts to as it was before the sympathetic NS was triggered
brain activity as related to emotion
brain activity can vary with different and within similar emotions - fear is more active in the amygdala, negative emotions tend to activate the right prefrontal cortex more than the left, while positive moods tend to activate the left rather than the right
why are certain facial expressions viewed as culturally universal?
people around the world, regardless of cultural or environmental background, exhibit the same expressions of emotions like fear, happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, and disgust, even when blind
how does culture influence display rules?
depending on culture, display rules may be to express emotional responses more or less frequently
display rules
a social group or culture’s informal norms which distinguish the manner in which one should express themselves and their emotions
facial feedback effect theory
the tendency of a certain facial expression of emotion to trigger their corresponding feelings such as anger, fear, happiness, or disgust
behaviour feedback effect theory
the tendency of behaviours to influence both our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions
stress
the process of appraising and responding to a threatening or challenging event
stressor
things that cause stress reactions sorted into 3 main categories - catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles including social stress
stress reaction
a physical and/or emotional response to a stressor
appraisal
the processing and perception of an event which defines it as stressful/threatening or safe/non-threatening
catastrophes
unpredictable, large-scale events, such as natural disasters or terrorist attacks
significant life changes
notable life transitions such as a death, a separation, or leaving for uni
daily hassles
common inconveniences, such as an electronic device dying, irritating peers or coworkers, an overfull schedule, or social stresses
fight-or-flight response proposed by cannon
the response of the sympathetic nervous system when alerted by any number of brain pathways, arousing the body, increasing heart rate and respiration, diverting blood from digestion to muscles, dulling feelings of pain, and releasing fats and sugars from the body’s storage, all increasing chances of survival
how do epinephrine and cortisol differ in the stress response?
epinephrine is “the one handing out the guns”, while cortisol is “the one drawing new blueprints”
stages of general adaptation syndrome
alarm, resistance, exhaustion
alarm
the first stage of general adaptation syndrome in which the sympathetic nervous system is suddenly activated - heart rate increases, blood is diverted to the skeletal muscles, and a small amount of shock is felt - chances of survival are increased
resistance
the second stage of general adaptation syndrome in which body temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high, the adrenal glands pump hormones into the bloodstream, and one is fully engaged, summoning all resources to meet the possible challenge. as time passes without any stress relief, the body’s resources begin to run out
exhaustion
the third and final stage of general adaptation syndrome in which one becomes more vulnerable to illness, or in an extreme, collapse or death
the research of friedman and rosenman on personality types, stress, and heart disease
the idea that stress increases vulnerability to heart disease was tested, measuring the blood cholesterol level and clotting speed of 40 american tax accountants at different times of the year - from jan through mar, the test results were normal, but as deadlines of april tax returns approached, they changed to dangerous levels, and returned again to normal afterwards
how does optimism and social support encourage and promote healthier coping mechanisms for stress?
those with an optimistic outlook and ample social support tend to experience better moods and stronger immune systems than pessimists, and tend to approach stress and challenges with resilience and feel more supported and satisfied with the resolutions. confiding feelings in others is also highly beneficial and promotes better health
benefits of aerobic exercise as related to stress reduction and improved health
exercise helps combat against heart disease, strengthening the heart, increasing blood flow, keeping blood vessels open, and lowering blood pressure and blood pressure reaction to stress, lowering risk of heart attacks. more aerobic exercise also shows longer lifespans and lower risks of cancer types - and in later life, also predicts better cognitive functioning. it also reduces stress, raises self-confidence and vigor, and reduces depression and fatigue
benefits of relaxation and meditation when managing stress and health
relaxation and meditation help reduce depression symptoms, stress, and alleviate headaches, hypertension, anxiety, and insomnia - also linked with improved sleep, interpersonal relationships, immune system functioning, and strengthened connections among brain regions, activating regions associated with more reflective awareness and calming brain activation in emotional situations
feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people’s tendency to be more helpful when in a good mood
who has pioneered the field of positive psychology?
martin seligman
three pillars of positive psychology
positive well-being, positive character, and positive groups, communities, and cultures
positive well-being
a pillar of positive psychology involving satisfaction with the past, happiness with the present, and optimism about the future
positive character
a pillar of positive psychology involving exploring and enhancing creativity, courage, compassion, integrity, self-control, leadership, wisdom, and spirituality
positive groups, communities, and cultures
a pillar of positive psychology involving fostering a positive social ecology, i.e. healthy families, communal neighbourhoods, effective schools, socially responsible media, and civil dialogue
adaptation-level phenomenon
one’s tendency to form judgements of sounds, lights, and income relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience
relative deprivation
the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself
approach-approach conflict
from lewin’s motivational conflict theory, conflicts that have two desirable outcomes (e.g. choosing between two favourite ice cream flavours)
avoidance-avoidance conflict
from lewin’s motivational conflict theory, conflicts that have two undesirable outcomes (e.g. choosing between studying for two different classes)
approach-avoidance conflict
from lewin’s motivational conflict theory, conflicts that do not involve a choice between two outcomes (e.g. risking auditioning for a role in the musical)
type a personality
a person who is determined, time-conscious, and extremely meticulous; they may have a tendency towards hostility and anger, and can be easily irritated
type b personality
a person who is tranquil and easygoing; less determined and competitive than type a and not easily angered
type c personality
an agreeable but introverted person who finds sharing feelings difficult and does not express anger or worry, but rather internalizes these feelings
hardy personality
a person that appears to flourish in stressful circumstances, but does not have the aggression of the type a personality
optimists
people who look for and expect positive results from life
pessimists
people who look for and expect negative results from life
problem-focused coping
coping strategies that attempt to eliminate the cause of stress or reduce its influence (e.g. solving a stressful relationship by breaking up with the person)
emotion-focused coping
coping strategies that modify the influence of a stressor by altering the emotional response to the stress the person is experiencing (e.g. solving a stressful relationship by discussing the issues with one another and seeing the stress as a challenge to overcome together)
meditation
a sequence of mental exercises used to redirect concentration and gain a heightened sense of relaxation
focus on wellness
taking good care of one’s physical and mental health, putting one in the best shape to deal with stressors that enter their life
concentrative meditation
a form of meditation in which a person centers their thoughts on an unchanging object or thought, allowing the mind to be cleared of painful thoughts and relaxing the body
receptive meditation
a form of meditation in which people become attentive of everything in their present thoughts or people attempt to expand their consciousness to another plane of well-being
free association
a method of exploring the unconscious in which one relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how embarrassing or trivial - freud believed it would allow him to follow a chain of thought leading into the patient’s unconscious, where painful unconscious memories (often from childhood) could be retrieved, reviewed, and released
conscious awareness
according to freud, the part of the iceberg above the surface
unconscious awareness
according to freud, the larger part of the iceberg beneath, with its thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories
preconscious area
according to freud, a part of the unconscious mind from which we can easily retrieve thoughts, feelings, wishes, and memories into conscious awareness
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