Study guide exam 3

Chapters 8, 9, 10

What is the spreading activation model in language?

It explains how some words in our mental lexicon become activated because they are linked with a word or concept currently held in mind

What is the difference between semantics and syntax?

Semantics refers to the meaning of words and sentences, while syntax refers to their structure and grammatical arrangement.

What is semantic priming?

The phenomenon where exposure to one word (e.g., doctor) makes related words (e.g., nurse) easier to access.

What is Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device (LAD)?

A hypothetical brain mechanism proposed by Chomsky to explain humans' innate ability to acquire language.

What does the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis argue?

Language influences thought. The strong form suggests language determines thought, while the weak form argues it shapes and guides thinking.

What are phonemes and morphemes?

Phonemes are the smallest units of sound, while morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language.

What is the difference between System 1 and System 2 thinking?

System 1 is fast, intuitive, and automatic; System 2 is slow, analytical, and deliberate.

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Judging the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype, often leading to biases like the conjunction fallacy.

What is loss aversion?

The tendency to feel the pain of a loss more strongly than the pleasure of a gain of the same magnitude.

How does framing influence decision-making?

People’s choices are affected by whether options are presented as gains or losses.

What is the anchoring effect?

The reliance on an initial reference point (anchor) when making judgments, even if it is irrelevant.

What is the sunk cost fallacy?

The tendency to continue investing in something because of previously invested resources, even if it’s not beneficial.

What is delay discounting?

The tendency to value immediate rewards more highly than delayed rewards, even if the delayed rewards are greater.

What is self-control, and how does it change with age?

Self-control is the ability to delay gratification. It develops in childhood, peaks in adulthood, and declines in older age due to changes in the frontal lobe.

What is deductive reasoning?

Drawing specific conclusions from general premises using logic (e.g., modus ponens).

What is inductive reasoning?

Forming generalizations based on specific observations or evidence (e.g., premise typicality and diversity).

What are the factors determining causal direction?

Temporal order (cause precedes effect), covariation (events occur together), and causal launching (one event triggers another).

What is Bayesian inference?

A method of updating the probability of a hypothesis based on prior knowledge (prior probability) and new evidence (likelihood).

What is the formula for Bayes’ rule?

P(H/E)=[P(E/H)/P(E)]×P(H),

where P(H/E)P(H/E)P(H/E) is the posterior probability.