Issues + Debates

Universality defintion

The idea that conclusions drawn can be applied to everyone regardless of time, cultural, gender, upbringing + experience.

How may a psychologist undermine the universality of a study (also part of definition)

Psychologists may possess beliefs + values that are influenced by the social + historical context in which they live in. This may undermine psychologists claims to discover facts about human behaviour that are objective, value free + consistent across time + culture (universality)

What bias may threat the universality of findings in psych

Gender Bias

Define Gender Bias

• Has to be neutral definition (could effect men + women)

Gender bias results when 1 gender is treated less favourably than the other, often referred to as sexism

What are the consequences of gender bias in research

it has a range of consequences:

• Being scientifically misleading

• Upholding scientific assumptions

• Validating sexual discrimination

Can you think of any pieces of research that are gender bias

Biased to males-

Zimbardo- prison, Maguire-taxis, Bowlby- 44 thieves, Asch- lines

Biased to females-

Moscovici- slides

Who concluded there were only 4 real differences between boys + girls in terms of behaviour

Maccoby + Jacklin (1974)

What are the 4 4 real differences between boys + girls in terms of behaviour according to Maccoby + Jacklin

• Aggression (Testosterone levels- Males= more aggressive)

• Verbal abilities (Females perform better)

• Spatial abilities (Males perform better)

• Maths= boys are better

Possible issues with Maccoby + Jacklin’s behaviour differences

There are some underlying biological differences but with psychological impacts (sexism)

the 2 types of gender bias

Alpha

Beta

What is Alpha bias

Research which emphasise/ overestimates the differences between sexes. Such differences are typically presented as fixed and inevitable. The differences are likely to devalue females in relation to male counterparts

*could heighten value or devalue males but unlikely

2 examples of alpha bias in research (no double cred. don’t talk about as AO1, AO2 + 3)

• Evolutionary approach is psych has been criticised of Alpha bias. Approach suggests the evolutionary process in the dev of human species explain why males tend to be more dominant + why females have more parental investment in their offspring + why more men are likely to commit adultery. However society has changed considerably over years + evolutionary perspective should not be used to justify gender differences

• Freud argued girls don’t suffer same Oedipal conflict as boys= they don’t identify with mothers as strong as boys with father= dev weaker superegos= females are morally inferior to males

What is Beta bias

Ignores/ underestimates/ minimises the differences between men and women. this often occurs when females aren’t included as part of research process + then it is assumed that research findings can apply to both sexes without additional validation (can be other way round)

examples of beta bias in research (no double cred. don’t talk about as AO1, AO2 + 3)

Zimbardo, Bowlby, Maguire, Asch, Moscovici, Milgram, McCarthy

Fight or flight response- women are actually more tend + befriend (Taylor research ?)

What might be a consequence of alpha bias

There is a misrepresentation of behaviour. Researchers overestimate/ exaggerate gender differences. Could lead to devaluating of women/ men

What might be a consequence of beta bias

There is a misrepresentation because researchers underestimate/ minimise gender differences. This could lead to ignoring real gender differences for women/ men

• However, beta bias has led to more equality in workplace and more education for women

What is a consequence of gender bias

Androcentrism

Androcentrism definition

Process of viewing the the world from a male centred point of view. Male biased views are used as the norm to explain psychological experiences of both sexes. If females show different behaviour from the male norm, the behaviour is seen as inferior and abnormal. If something doesn’t concern the androcentric world it isn’t investigates. Can lead to female behaviour being misunderstood and at times taken as a sign of psychological indtability

Examples of androcentrism in research

Many of Freud’s ideas are seen as inherently gender biased. He saw ‘biology as destiny’ + a women’s role was predetermined. All his theories are androcentric, especially ‘penis envy’ where women are defined psychologically by the fact they aren’t men. These ideas had serious consequences as they reinforced stereotypes e.g. women’s moral inferiority or if a women wanted a career it was because ‘penis envy’- she wanted to be a man= clearly androcentric + phallocentric

Pre-menstrual syndrome- may stereotype+ trivialise female experience. Critics claim PMS is a social construct which medicalises female emotion, especially anger, by explaining in terms of hormones. Male anger is instead seen as rational response to external stimuli (Brescoll + Ulhman)

How can researchers avoid gender bias in their research?

• Don’t extrapolate findings from research with male p’s to female or female p’s to males. Mixed p’s should be used if their is a mixed target pop

• Involve mixed researchers

• Don’t exaggerate differences where there are no real differences- avoid alpha bias

• Don’t minimise or ignore real difference in behaviour- avoid beta bias

• Be sensitive to male + female norms when designing research/ when reporting findings

• Take a reflexive approach, ie constantly reflecting on ow gender biases when carrying out research.

AO3- Evidence gender bias really exists + problematic consequences of it ( ☹ )

One problem with gender biased research is that the conclusions drawn from it may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour which is used to validate sex discrimination. For example, it may provide a scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the workplace or in wider society (e.g. PMS may trivialise and medicalise female emotional, whereas males are seen to be rational). Therefore, gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem but may also have damaging consequences which affects the lives of women, for example, women are twice as likely to be diagnosed with depression as men. However, it is important to remember that gender bias can also sometimes work against males as well as females, as women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression and given treatment than males.

Another problem is that gender bias also promotes sexism within the research process. For example, there is a lack of women appointed at senior research level, including psychological research. This means female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked. Male researchers are also more likely to have their work published and studies which find gender differences are more likely to appear in journal articles than those who do not. Furthermore, lab experiments may also disadvantage female participants as they are placed in an unequal relationship with the usually male researcher who has the power to label them as unreasonable, irrational and unable to complete tasks (Nicolson, 1995). This means that psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research.

AO3- Reasons to study gender bias + how to avoid it/ minimise it’s impact ( 🙂 )

One strength of understanding gender bias is that it leads to reflexivity. Gender bias within research has led to modern researchers recognising the effects of their own values and assumptions can have on the nature of their work. Rather than seeing bias a problem, they are embracing it as a crucial and critical aspect of the research process. For example, Dambrin and Lambert (2008) studied the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms and included a reflection on how their gender related experiences may have influenced their interpretation of events. Such reflexivity is an important development in psychology and may lead to a greater awareness of the role of bias in improving research in the future.

By accepting gender bias occurs, we can develop a greater understanding of it and how to reduce gender bias. Psychologists have put forward several solutions. For example, some psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance or value of women. Cornwell et al (2013) noted that women are better at learning, as they are more attentive and organised, thus emphasising both the value of and the positive stereotypes, which is important in reducing gender bias. Taking a feminist approach accepts that there are biological differences between males and females. For example, evolutionary research by Eagly suggests that females are less effective leaders than males. However, the purpose of Eagly's claim is to help researchers develop training programmes aimed at increasing the number of female leaders in the real world.

Final evaluation for gender bias

In conclusion, Worrell suggests that to avoid gender bias, women should be studied within meaningful contexts and genuinely participate in research rather than being passive objects of study. Diversity within groups of women should be examined, rather than simply making comparisons between men and women. Finally, there should be greater emphasis placed on collaborative research methods that collect qualitative data to aid understanding. This way of doing research may be preferable and less gender biased than traditional, laboratory-based research.

How may cultural bias threaten universality

Researches may wrongly assume findings from studies of western cultures can be applied all over world. E.G. Milgram + Asch give very different results when replicated in parts of world outside USA

What is cultural bias

KEEP IT NEUTRAL

The tendency to ignore cultural differences + interpret all phenomenon through the lens of one’s own cultures. If the norm for particular behaviour is judged from the standpoint of one cultures, then any deviating cultural differences will be seen as abnormal. inferior or unusual

What is alpha bias in terms of cultural bias

When a theory assumes that cultural groups are profoundly different + that these recognitions must always inform psychological research

What is beta bias in terms of cultural bias

Occurs when real cultural differences are ignored/ minimised and all people are assumed the same, resulting in universal research designs and conclusions that mistakenly assume all cultures to be identical.

What is ethnocentrism

Belief in superiority of one’s own cultural group. In psych= seeing the world from one’s own cultural perspective + believing that this one perspective in both normal + correct. This may then communicate the idea that behaviour that doesn’t conform is somehow deficient or underdeveloped

Examples of ethnocentrism and cultural bias in research

• Ainsworth’s strange situation- was developed to assess attachment type + key variable in defining attachment was separation anxiety. German children= higher insure avoidant on average as they tend not to show anxiety on separation= interpretation mothers were cold + rejecting. In reality they just valued more independent behaviour. So SS = inappropriate for non US children.

• Definition of abnormality vary culture to culture- Rack claims Afro-Caribbean people in Britain= wrongly diagnosed as mentally ill due to the norm of their subculture being different e.g. talking to ancestors (seen as hallucinations= schizo diagnosis)

• IQ= demonstrates intelligence of western culture + involves completing timed tasks. Brislin question validity of nation of metal quickness in relation to intelligence. Baganda people of Uganda characterise intelligence as slow, careful + deliberate though (Wober) so may see speed of thought as rash

What can lead to cultural bias

Etic research

What is Etic research

Research/ theory based on and carried out on a specific culture that is assumed to then apply to all cultural groups = considered as universal.

Culture bias can occur when researchers assume behaviour/findings/ theory is universal + try to apply to all cultures= leads to IMPOSED ETIC

E.G. assuming that facial expressions are universal when infact their are subtle cultural differences

What is a solution to imposed etic

Emic research

What is emic research

Based on + carried out on a specific culture + is carried out to understand that culture + NOT generalised to other countries, can show variations within cultures. E.G. research of European societies should be carried out by European psychologist from a European perspective + African research by African psychs…

Avoids problem of cultural bias as there is no imposed etic + more likely to have ecological validity as finding= less likely to be distorted or caused by a mismatch between the cultures of the researcher + the culture being investigated

What is cultural relativism

Idea that norms + values, as well as ethics + moral standards can only be meaningful + understood within specific social + cultural contexts. So any study that draws it sample from only 1 cultural group + then generalises findings is suspect

Why is cultural relativism practised

To avoid cultural bias

+Avoid judging another culture by the standards of ones own culture.

What is cultural relativism consider to attempt to avoid

Ethnocentrism

Research examples of Cultural relativism

According to cultural relativism the meaning of intelligence is different in every culture

E.G. Stenberg- coordination’s skills that may be essential to a life in preliterate society (e.g. motor skills needed for shooting bow + arrow) may be mostly irrelevant to what is considered intelligent behaviour in literate + more developed society.

AO3- evidence cultural bias really exists and problematic consequences of it, etc

• When conducting research remember all cultures may not be the same. Individualist (western, independence) + collectivist (non western, interdependence) dimension reminds us of this. However, 1 issue = cultural bias may be less of a problem as it once was. E.G, critics have suggested due to increase global connectivism + interconnectedness, using basic cultural distinctions (individualists + collectivists)= irrelevant. Takano + Osaka- found 14/15 studies of USA vs Japan found no evidence of trad distinction between individualism + collectivism. Perhaps suggest cultural bias, while still issue in research is less of issue as once was.

• Furthermore it shouldn’t be assumed that all psych is culturally relative + that their is no such thing as universal behaviour. Ekman suggests basic human facial expression for emotion are the same all over world. Furthermore, some aspects of human attachments e.g. imitation + interactional synchrony= universal. Therefore whilst it is important to conduct culturally relative research, a full understanding of human behaviour requires study both universally + of variations within groups.

Reason to study cultural bias + how to avoid/ minis its impact etc

• Strength of conducting cross- cultural research= may challenges our typically western ways of thinking + viewing world. Being able to see that some concepts we take for granted aren’t shared by all promotes greater sense of individual differences + cultural relativism for future. This helps counter subjective racism + therefore any conclusions drawn will have greater validity is they include recognition about the role of culture bring them about.

• Overall research should aim to include thorough research which studies many cultures in order to identify similarities + cross cultural research which studies many different cultures to identify variations. To achieve universality, a theory mist apply to all people irrespective of gender + culture but must also include real differences. Berry also suggests that derived etic can be used. The study of different cultures through the use of comparison can help us learn more about target pop.

How can we aim to achieve universality in research

Berry suggests there are 2 main approaches in studying human behaviour:

• Emic approaches look at behaviour that are particular to specific cultures (looks from within a culture + therefore is culturally relative)

• Etic approaches describe behaviour that is universal to all people (looks from outside a culture + doesn’t take culture into account)

How can we aim to achieve universality in research in relation to gender

Developing theories that show similarities and differences between males + females, without devaluing each gender. This may mean using a variety of research methods and considering women in the natural settings in which they function.

How can we aim to achieve universality in research in relation to culture

One way to achieve universality would be to employ derived etic (Berry) this is where a series of emic studies take place in local setting, conducted by local researchers using local techniques. such studies can build up pic of human behaviour. The study of different cultures through the use of comparisons, as by making comparisons between cultures we cab learn more about target culture.

What is free will

Suggests humans are self determining + free to choice out thoughts + actions. It doesn’t deny there may be biological + environmental forces that exert some influence on out behaviour but implies that we can chose to reject these.

Simply- Nation that humans can make choices + aren’t determined by biological or external factors

What approach strongly advocates free will

Humanistic- the idea is central to Rodger’s client centred therapy- people are free to affect change in their lives by choosing to see their situation differently. After removing psychological barriers people can work towards self actualising

What is determinism

Concept that all human behaviour results from either internal or external causes that are not under our conscious control or free will. Our behaviour is result of chain of consequence. Very simplistic e.g. I am aggressive due to my genes

What is hard determinism + example

Free will= illusion + believes every event/ action has a cause. Also referred to as Fatalism + is compatible with scientific approach. It assumes that everything we think + do is dictated by internal + external forces. An example: Biological approach- suggest behaviour is caused by biological influences we can’t control

What is soft determinism + example

Acknowledges all human action have a cause but people have conscious mental thought over the way they behave. So people do have a choice but that choice is constrained by external factors.

E.G. The cognitive approach suggests behaviour is result of mediational processes however humans can chose what info they attend to

What is biological determinism + example

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological ( genetic, hormonal + evolutionary) influences we can’t control

E.G. our biological systems control our behaviour e.g. role of hormones such as testosterone in aggression

What is environmental determinism + example

Belied that behaviour is caused by features of the environment that we can’t control e.g. reward + punishment.

E.G. Skinner argued free will is an illusion + all behaviour is result of conditioning so our actions are result of reinforcement contingencies

What is psychic determinism + example

Behaviour is caused by unconscious processes or conflicts that we can’t control

E.G. Freud believed free will was an illusion + that childhood experiences + unconscious motivations governed behaviour

What type of determinism is the Behaviourist approach + explanation why

Environmental determinism

It suggest that behaviour is determined by stimulus response conditioning

What type of determinism is the SLT approach + explanation why

Soft Determinism

It acknowledges the role of environmental forces (vicarious reinforcements) but suggests that humans have a personal responsibility + have some free choice

What type of determinism is the Biological approach + explanation why

Biological determinism

It suggests that behaviour is controlled by factors such as genes, hormones, brain structures + neurotransmitters

What type of determinism is the Cognitive approach + explanation why

Soft determinism

It believes that behaviour is the result of mediational processes, however humans can choose what info they attend to

What type of determinism is the Psychodynamic approach + explanation why

Psychic determinism

It suggest that behaviour is determined by unconscious drivers + early childhood experiences

What type of determinism is the Humanistic approach + explanation why

Free will

Only approach which suggest that humans have control over their own environment + are capable of change

Scale of determinism to free will with approaches on

AO3 ± for free will

🙂 Everyday experience gives the impression that we are constantly exercising free will through choices we make everyday. This gives face validity to the concept of free will as it makes cognitive sense

🙂 Research also suggests people who have internal locus of control believe they have a high degree of influence over behaviour + tend to be more mentally healthy. Roberts et al- adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism= significantly greater risk of depression. Suggests tat even if we don’t have free will, the fact we may think we do has a positive impact upon the mind + behaviour

☹ Libet- brain activity determines the outcome of simple choices before our knowledge of making such choices. Choice whether to press button with R or L hand occurs in brain 10s before p’s reported being consciously aware of making such a decision . Suggests even most basic experiences of free will are determined by our brain

AO3 overlapping point for Free will + determinism

Few people agree behaviour is always completely under control of individual as we a constantly influenced by or biology e.g. genes, hormones etc, for example dev of schizo has been linked to mutation of the COMT gene. This challenges the free will explanation + supports the biological determinism explanation.

AO3 ± of determinism

🙂 It is scientific= allows cause + effect to be established. So obeys laws + allows for prediction + control of human behaviour which allows for dev of treatments, therapies + inventions. E.G. dev of antipsychotics for treatment + management of schizo.

🙂 Plausible explanation for behaviour backed up by evidence= more reliable. E.G. theories can gain empirical evidence + their reliability can be tested. One example is Watson + Raynor- Little Albert was conditioned to have phobia of white rates. This supports environmental determinism it suggest Albert’s behaviour was determined by stimulus response conditioning

☹ Despite its scientific credentials it is unfalsifiable. It is based o idea that the cause of behaviour will always exist even thought they may not have been yet found. As a basic principle, this is impossible to prove wrong and suggest that the deterministic approach may not be as scientific as first appears

Conclusions AO3 point for free will determinism

Internationalist approach may provide us with best compromise in debate i.e. those that adopt a soft determinism approach. E.G. SLT which argues that although environmental factors in learning are key, we are free to choose who or what we attend to + when to perform certain behaviours. This may be a more plausible explanation that pure free will or determinism

What view does the science take in free will, determinism + how does psychology use this (the scientific emphasis on causal explanations)

Science takes a deterministic view.

It advocates cause + effect.

In psychology, the lab experiment allows researchers to stimulate conditions of a test tube + remove/ minimise extraneous variables allowing us to control + predict human behaviour

± of psych using deterministic approach (lab experiments)

+ Allows prediction of behaviour= can dev treatments which have real life implications e.g. treatments of schizo using Antipsychs

+ Society is more willing to accept psychological findings as we like to think we can predict human behaviour+ that individual differences are minimised

- Unfalsifiable- difficult to predict how all humans will behave in similar situs + difficult to elicit complex human behaviour patterns in lab

- Disregards free will which makes cognitive sense + therefore has face validity. Furthermore therapies such as CBT which view people as being bale to change their thoughts ( so accounts for free will) have been found successful

define the nature-nurture debate

Considers the possibility that behaviour is governed by nature (genes etc) and by nurture (e.g environment, learning experience etc) and it debates the relative contribution of each of these influences

Define nature side of nature-nurture debate

The view that all our behaviour is determined by our biology, our genes

What are supporters of the nature side of debate called

Nativists

Who is the early nativists + what time

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

What did Rene Descartes argue

That human characteristics + even some aspects of knowledge are innate ad the results of heredity

Define heredity

Something inherited via genes

What is the heritability coefficient + example

Numerical figure ranging from 0-1 which indicates extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis (1= entirely genetically determined + 0= entirely environmental)

General figure for heritability in IQ= 0.5 across multiple studies in varying pops. Suggests genetics + environment are both important factors in intelligence because heritability figure is at neither extreme

3 examples of nature arguments

Evolutionary e.g. Bowlby + MAOA

Example of nature argument- evolutionary + example

Stresses the importance of genetics. Main assumption underlying this approach is that any particular behaviour has evolved because of its survival value + therefore is innate

E.G. Bowlby suggested that attachment behaviours are displayed because they ensure the survival of an infant + the continuation of the parent’s genes. This survival value is further increased because attachment has implications for later relationship formation which will ultimately promote successful reproduction

Example of nature argument- MAOA

Genetic influence on aggression such as the MAOA gene provide evidence for the nature side of the debate as any evidence for these factors can be used to argue that aggression is an innate drive

Define nurture side of debate

All behaviour is learnt + influenced by external factors such as the environment etc.

All knowledge is gained through experience + we are born without any innate mechanisms (expect basic reflexes).

What are supporters of the nurture side of debate called

empiricists

Who supports the nurture side of the debate + what did his research say

Locke- viewed mind as tabula rasa= black slate on which experiences are written

What is the issue with the concept of nurture + environmental influences in psych + who studied this

Requires further clarification as the environment is a broad concept .

Richard Lerner identified levels of the environment….

- These could be defined in narrow pre-natal terms (eg mother's physical and psychological state during pregnancy) or post-natal experiences (eg social conditions child grows up in or cultural and historical context they are part of)

example of nurture argument

Behavioural approach- Assumes all behaviour is learnt through the environment. E.G. SLT explanation of aggression, Bobo dolls. SLT proposes we learn through observation + vicarious reinforcement. Bandura found children who watch an aggressive adult role model tend to imitate the behaviour against the doll. So supports idea personality is determined by nurture.

How is the nature nurture debate studied

Twin + adoption studies

How is the nature nurture debate studied through twin/ adoption studies

• Monozygotic twins share same genetic makeup so can assume any differences are due to environmental factors

• Useful to extent- if find similarities- are they due to shared genes or shared environments??

• Correlation with adoptive parents is higher than biological parents= due to nurture or vise versa

Evaluation for nature nurture debate

• There is empirical evidence that shoe behaviour is learnt + can be modified through conditioning. E.G. Pavlov- dogs could be conditioned to respond to sound of bell. However Behavioural accounts are all in terms of learning, but even learning has genetic basis + might be partly due to heredity. E.G. research found mutant flies missing crucial gene can’t be conditioned (Quinn et al). Suggest learning may be an interaction of nature + nurture.

• Another argument for nurture is transgenerational effect. Some behaviour appears to be determined by nature may infact be determined by nurture. E.G. if women has poor diet during her pregnancy, her unborn child will not get sufficient nutrients + will have low birth mass. This means the eggs of the female child that is born will also have these negative effects. This can then affect the dev of her children’s a whole generation later. This means that a child's dev may be determined by their grandmothers environment. This suggest that what may appear to be inherited is in fact cased by environment + nurture, thus providing a problem for nature argument.

• Furthermore, Bowlby’s explanation of attachment, while having a basis in evolution, doesn’t ignore environmental influences. In the monotropic theory, Bowlby proposed that infants become most strongly attached to the caregiver who responds most sensitively to the infant's needs. The experience of sensitive caregiving leads a child to develop expectations that others will be equally sensitive, so that they tend to form adult relationships that are enduring and trusting. Therefore, this suggests that attachment behaviours are not purely due to heritability and instead maybe an interactionist approach to explaining attachment is needed. This would recognise that an individual's innate temperament influences the way its parents respond to it. Thus, nature creates nurture and the two sides of the debate interact.
  

• Another area that benefits from an interactionist approach is aggression. When considering the effect of the MAOA gene, there is research to suggest that an individual only goes onto be aggressive if it is triggered by their environment. Caspi et al (2002) found one mutation of the MAOA could make men more violent, but only if they had experienced cruelty, abuse or rejection in childhood. Therefore, maybe biological explanations are too reductionist in their view. Therefore, perhaps the diathesis-stress model is a better explanation than genetics alone. This is the idea that a person may carry the gene for increased aggression, however, it takes an environmental trigger to activate this aggression. For example, adoption studies have shown the highest levels of criminal violence in adopted children occur when both biological and adoptive parents have a history of violent crime. This suggests that some individuals are more at risk of committing violent crime than others and highlights the issue over whether nature or nurture is the cause of aggression.
  

• In addition, there are controversial implications for both sides of nature-nurture debate. An extreme nativist stance is very deterministic, stating that our genes determine our characteristics and behaviour, with very little environmental influence. This has fed discriminatory and eugenics policies, for example, linking ethnicity with intelligence and enforced sterilisations of certain groups. An extreme empiricist stance suggests that any characteristics or behaviour can be shaped or modified.
  This has led to controversial practices such as aversion therapy, where people are "cured" of problematic behaviours such as drug addition by painful punishments. It is therefore important to understand not only the theoretical concepts in the nature-nurture debate, but the possible practical applications too.
  

• Overall research suggests that it is difficult to disentangle the effects of nature and nurture, and that human behaviour is likely a combination of both heredity and environmental factors. This is known as the interactionist approach. For example, the interactionist approach to attachment sees the bond between an infant and child as a 'two way street' because the child's innate temperament (nature) influences how the parent behaves towards them. The parent's response (nurture) in turn affects the child's behaviour (Belsky & Rovine 1987).

Extra evaluation for the nature nurture debate- Epigenetics

• In addition, Epigenetics refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing our genetic code. It is a process that happens throughout life and is caused by interaction with the environment. Aspects of our lifestyle including smoking, diet and exposure to pollution leave epigenetic 'marks' on our DNA. These marks tell our cellular mechanisms which genes to "switch off" and which to transcribe into proteins. In turn, this may go on and influence the transcribing of genetic codes of our children, as well as their children. Epigenetics therefore suggests that the life experience of previous generations is also an important element in shaping our behaviour.
  

• Research support for this idea comes from Dias and Ressler (2014) who gave male lab mice electric shocks every time they were exposed to the smell of acetophenone, a chemical used in perfume. The mice showed a fear reaction as soon as the scent was presented. Surprisingly, the mice's children also feared the smell - even though they had not been exposed to acetophenone before or received any shocks. So did their grandchildren. This suggests that the effect of epigenetic markers can be passed on to future generations as well as the DNA itself

What is psychodynamics position in nature nurture debate

• Freud argued that personalities are the result of an interaction of nature + nurture. He emphasised importance of inborn instincts + drives (represents in the id). However, he also said that experiences can result in fixations in the stages of development.

What is Biological position in nature nurture debate

• Emphasises genetically determined brain structure + processes. Evolutionary psychology states that many behaviours e.g. aggression are genetically influenced because they have survival value. However, environmental influences brain development so learning can override genetic predisposition

What is cognitive position in nature nurture debate

• Studies genetically/biologically determined mental processes but recognises that the environmental influences in their development + functioning

What is behavioural position in nature nurture debate

• All behaviours are learnt through conditioning, apart from inborn reflexes + instincts (e.g. blinking)

What is humanistic position in nature nurture debate

• Basic needs need to be met to reach your full potential (to self actualise). However, whether you reach it depends on your life experience

Nature nurture scale

Define Holism

Any attempt to break down behaviour and experience in inappropriate as these can only be understood by analysing the person or behaviour as a whole. This is a view shared by humanistic psychologists who saw successful therapy as brining together all aspects of the whole person

Define reductionism

Analyses behaviour by breaking it down into its constituent parts. It is based on the scientific principle of parsimony.

What is parsimony

The idea that all phenomena should be explained using the most basic (lowest level) principles. This is often the simplest, easiest and most economical level of explanation

What are the levels of explanation in psych (reduction/holism debate)

That there is different ways of viewing the same phenomena in psychology- some more reductionist than others

Explaining behaviour in a reductionist manor= lower level explanation whereas more holistic explanation= higher level explanation

Levels of explanation lowest to highest with examples of approaches

Lowest- Biological explanations (Neurochemical, Genetics, Brain structures..)

Psychological explanations (Cognitive, Behavioural/Environmental)

Highest- Social + cultural explanations- The influence of social groups on behaviour)

Example of level of explanations (PHOBIAS)- (to be used as AO1 in stem 16m or when asked from own AO2 as 4 levels= 4 marks)

Lowest- Neurochemical levels- e.g. higher than normal levels of adrenaline + cortisol triggering the fight or flight response more readily

Structural level- An interaction of brain areas e.g. hypothalamus may be more sensitive in detecting potential threats and instructing other body structures e.g. adrenal glands and activation of the sympathetic nervous system response

Stimulus- response psychological level- the individual may have learned an association between a fear causing stimulus and a neutral stimulus, which becomes a conditioned stimulus, evoking a fearful, conditioned response

Highest- Social learning level- In early life, the individual may have repeatedly observed their parents showing extreme fear to the phobic object. This includes complex processes such as identification, retention + reinforcement (encouraging the child to avoid the phobic object)

Different types of reductionism- Biological

Based on premise that we are biological organisms made up of physiological structures and processes. Thus, all behaviour is at some level biological and so can be explained through neurochemical, neurophysiological, evolutionary and genetic influences.

What approach takes on biological reductionism

Biological approach- E.G. effects of psychoactive drugs on the brain have contributed much to our understanding of neural processes and the fact that it might be possible to explain serious mental disorders such as OCD, depression + schizo on a biochemical level

Biological reductionism examples for AO1 + AO3 links to different topics

Neurochemical (brain chemicals)- Dopamine hypos schizo, Aggression, Gender, OCD, flight/fight, sleep-wake

Neurophysiological (brain structures)- Brain plasticity, Functional recovery

Evolutionary- Attachments, Fight/flight, Aggression, Phobias

Genetic- Schizo, OCD, Gender, Aggression

Environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism + approach example

Behaviourist approach is built on it. They study observable behaviour + in doing so break down complex learning in to simple stimulus- response links that are measurable within learning. E.G. a child responds with fear to stimulus of loud noise. If neutral stimulus- rat is present at same time as loud noise, child can dev phobia whereby rat becomes conditioning stimulus + fear= conditioned response (classical conditioning).

The behaviourist approach considers the mind + psychological level irrelevant to understanding our behaviour + focuses on analysis at physical level. This is seen my early behaviourist- John Watson- who believed the processes of thought was a form of sub vocal speech, characterised by psychical movement, the same as any other behaviour

Environmental reductionism examples for AO1 + AO3 links to different topics

Behaviourist approach to :

• phobias e.g. Pavlov + little albert

• Attachment

• Gender

• Aggression

Strengths of Holism

• Doesn’t ignore the complexity of human behaviour. Takes in to account biological, environmental, social + psychological factors and therefore much more likely to lead to more in depth + valid understanding of behaviour.

• Looks at person as a whole + so more likely to uncover the causes of illnesses such as depression as different individuals will undoubtedly have has different causes which can only be understood by looking individually at whole person

• Useful when investigating social behaviours which only emerge within a group context. One example is conformity, this can’t be understood by looking at individual group member, the whole group need to be investigated. E.G. Conformity to social roles in SPE can’t be understood by looking at one prisoner or one guard, it was the interactions between the people and group behaviour that helps us understand conformity