Upanishads
Later Vedic literature
Derived from terms - upa meaning near, ni meaning down and shad meaning to sit
Recorded in the form of dialogue between teachers and students
Criticised the prevalence of excessive rituals
108 Upanishads
Gargi
Upanishad thinker known for her knowledge and took part in intellectual debates
Causes for the rise of new religious sects
Reaction against excessive rituals that were elaborate and costly as followed by the brahmins.
Rigid varna system - originally determined by occupation and slowly became determined by birth.
Increasing influence of vaishyas due to importance of trade followed these new religions like Buddhism and Jainism as there was no attachement to the hereditary varna system.
Use of everyday languages in the new religions.
Jainism
An Indian religion strengthened by Vardhana Mahavira
Mahavira
A Lichchhavi prince who left home at the age of thirty and found full enlightenment
He became an Arhant and Jina.
He was known as kaivalya showing attainment of perfect knowledge.
Preached the religious ideas in Magadha and Anga
Five doctrines of Jainism
Do not commit violence
Do not speak a lie
Do not steal
Do not acquire property
Observe celibacy
Jainas
Followers of Mahavira
Life of Jainas
Discarding of clothes completely
Observe the five doctrines
Vow of non-killing and non-violence
Did not condemn the varna system
Person born in high virtues from previous birth are in a high varna
Spread of Jainism
Order of ascetics in Anga and Magadha
Both women and men admitted in the order
Gradually spread to Kalinga, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and south India
Doctrines were taught in Prakrit ( common people language)
Sects in Jainism
Digambaras - Strict followers of Mahavira and chose not to wear clothes
Shvetambaras - wore a white dress and covered their mouths with white cloth
Failure of Jainism to attract the masses
Did not go against the varna system
Large sections of the population like farmers could not follow complete non-violence as their occupation involves killing of pests and insects
Gautama Buddha
Also known as Siddhartha
Son of the chief of Republican tribe of Sakyas
Born in Lumbini
Left his family as a prince and abandoned his family in search of true knowledge
Received enlightenment under the peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar
Dharmachakrapravartana
Meaning “Turning of the Wheel of Law”
First sermon of Buddha in Sarnath
Kusinagara
Buddha passed away in this place
Karma
Good or bad action
Teachings of Buddha
In Pali language
Believed that actions, good or bad, influence us in this and all other lives
Buddha’s four noble truths
The world is full of sorrow
The cause for sorrow is desire or thirst
This sorrow can be stopped
The sorrow can be ended by an eight-fold path
Eight-fold path of Buddha
Right faith
Right thought
Right speech
Right action
Right living
Right efforts
Right remembrance
Right meditation
Sangha
The place where monks monks stay together after wandering, preaching and seeking alms.
Vihara
Buddhist monasteries
Code of conduc for the followers of Buddhism
Not possessing the property of others
Practicing non-violence
Discarding use of intoxicants
Speaking the truth
Not indulging in corrupt practices
Spread of Buddhism
Adopted by several states like Magadha, Kosala and Kausambi
Reason for the spread of Buddhism
Did not recognise the existence of god and soul
Attacked the varna system thus gaining popularity among the people
Women were also part of the sangha
The use of Pali
No importance attached to rituals and sacrifices
Popularised by rulers like Ashoka
Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism
Started by people from the kshatrya varna/ rulers
Opposed the superiority of brahmins
Admitted people from lower caste and women
Attracted vaishyas and traders
No elaborate rituals and practices
Taught in the language of the masses like Prakrit and Pali
Differences between Buddhism and Jainism
Buddha did not focus on the existence of God whereas ahavira denied the existence of God
Jainism strongly focused on non-violence whereas Buddhism did not take any extreme measures
Jainism - more focus on austerity/ refraining from worldly pleasures
Jainism - asked followers to give up the use of clothes like Jainism
Buddhism spread beyond India ; Jainism confined to areas within India
Buddhism strongly attacked the varna system unlike Jainism
Causes of second urbanisation
Increased agriculture
Increased trade
Guilds/ Shrenis
Places that provided training to craftsmen and also acted as banks that gave them grants
Types of urban centres
Political/administrative town - Rajagriha, Hastinapur, Kausambhi and Champa
Market towns - Ujjain
Religious towns - Kashi and Vaishali
Coastal towns - Sopara, Arikamedu, and Tamralipti
Location of market towns
Located in places where there is an agricultural surplus that could be used for exchange
Taxila
30km north-west from Islamabad
Excavated by John Marshal
Administrative centre under the Mauryans and Indo-Greeks
In the trade route between north and west India.
Trade with Roman Empire
Evidences of Buddhist monasteries
Had a distinct style of Gandhara Art under the Kushanas
Ashtadhyayi
A book of grammar written by Panini
Jataka stories
Shows a glimpse of city and village life
Includes stories about the life of Buddha
Punch-marked coins
Silver and copper coins that has symbols and designs with a separate punch mark
Three types of villages
First category - People from different castes and communities headed by a villageman or grambhojaka
Second category - craft villages with craftmen
Third category - Border villages merged with forests with hunters and gatherers
Northern Black Polished Ware
Glossy and shiny pottery found in north India used by the richer class
Gandhara School of Art
A style of art that has images of Buddha and Boddhisattvas with distinct Greek features
Rudradaman
A prominent ruler of the Sakas
His military achievements are highlighted in the Junagadh inscriptions
Kushanas
Belonged to the Yueh-chi tribe
Minted large amount of coins that was received in turn of protecting traders using the Silk route
Kanishka
Most popular ruler of the Kushanas
First capital was at Purushapura
Mathura School of Art flourished under Kanishka
Organised the fourth Buddhist council
Buddhacharita
A biography of Buddha that was composed by Ashvagosha who was a poet in Kanishka’s court
Satavahanas
Powerful rulers in the Deccan
Capital - Pratisthana
Prominent ruler - Gautamiputra Satakarni
Constant rivalry with Sakas
Lords of Dakshinapatha - trade route to South India
Pandyas
Ruled areas around Madurai
Port city - Korkai
Trade contacts with Roman empire
Cholas
Known as Cholamandalam
Near Kaveripatnam
Capital - Uraiyur
Famous ruler - Karikal
Cheras
Ruled over Kerala and parts of Tamilnadu
Also known as Keralaputras
Capital city - Vanji
Muziris - Chief port
Economy of kingdoms in South India
Trade with the Roman Empire
Exported gold, precious stones and spices
Pepper was seen as black gold by the Romans
Wealth collected during military conquering
Poets were rewarded with precious stones, gold, animal and fine cloth.
Silk Route
Chinese - first to invent the production of silk 7000 years ago
Carried silk on horsebacks, camels and by foot to sell them.
Path followed by the Chinese to sell silk - Silk route
Silk was expensive as it included traveling over dangerous and rough terrains to deliver it
Kushanas controlled them in India as they protected the traders from robbers
Maritime Trade
Started in Mauryan empire
Trade through sea routes
Link with Roman empire and Han empire
Imports - Brocades, coral, frankincense, and wine
Glass objects from Rome
Exports from India - Spices, precious stones and yarn
Chandragupta I
First important ruler of the Gupta empire
Expanded territories through favorable marriages
Married the Lichchhavi princess - Kumaradevi to enhance prestige
Samudragupta
Son of Chandragupta I
Had an aggressive policy of expansion
Information about his conquests in Prayaga Prasashti inscriptions at Allahabad
Described as Kaviraja as he was a lover of poetry and music and his coins show him playing the veena
Prayaga Prasashti
33 line eulogy( in praise) composed by Harisena.
Defeat of nine rulers of Aryavarta
The defeat of 12 rulers from Dakshinapatha
Homage from frontier kingdoms
Chandragupta II
Title - Vikramaditya
Extended territory through marriage alliances and conquests
He was also known for his respect and love for poets
Kalidasa was part of his court
Succeeded by Kumaragupta and Skandagupta
Central administration of Guptas
High sounding titles such as maharajadhiraja, chakravarti and paramesvara
King assisted by a council of ministers
Assisted by the chief justice/mahadandanayaka
Minster for taking care of army - Sandhi-Vigrahika
Provincial administration of Guptas
Empire divided into bhuktis/provinces
Provinces adminsitered by uparikas
Districts administered by vishayapatis
No capital punishment was given
Taxation under the Guptas
Land revenue was the main source
Fines
Decentralisation under the Guptas
Land was given to military leaders called samantas who supported the king, and collected revenue from these lands.
Harshavardana
Information fro Harshacharita- a biography written by Banabhatta from his court
Accounts from the Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsang
Throne in Thaneshwar
Wrote three plays in Sanskrit - Ratnavalli, Priyadarshika and Nagananda
Gave a special grant to Nalanda University
Initially a worshipper of Shiva and later converted to Buddhism
Pallavas
Mentioned in Samudraguptas’ pillar
Area of dominance - Kanchipuram
Attacked by Guptas, Cholas and Khalabhras
Prominent rulers - Simhavishnu
Constant rivalry with Chalukyas
Chalukyas
Largely influential in Raichur Doab
Capital - Aihole
Pulakesin I, Pulakesin II , Kirthivarmal I
Aihole inscription - composed by Ravikriti - court poet of Pulakesin II