Ch 1: Foundations of Environmental Systems and Societies

1.1 - Environmental value systems

Environmental value system (EVS): a worldview that shapes the way an individual or group perceive and evaluate environmental issues
* Examples: culture, religion, economic and socio-political context
Who is included in the environmental movement?

  1. Influential individuals: often use social media to raise awareness
  2. Independent pressure groups: they use awareness campaigns to make a change. They influence the government and corporate business organisations → Non Governmental Organisations (NGO’s)
  3. Corporate businesses: multinational corporations (MNC) and transnational corporations supply consumer demand and create environmental impact
     * mining for minerals or burning of fossil fuels
  4. Governments: make policy decisions which include environmental ounces, such as planning permission for land use, applying legislation to manage emissions controls over factories
  5. Intergovernmental bodies: these groups hold summits about earth to bring governments, NGOs and corporations to consider environmental and world development issues

Categories of EVS:
* Ecocentric worldview: puts ecology and nature as central to humanity (less materialistic lifestyle)

    1. Deep ecologists
    2. Soft reliant, soft ecologists
  * Anthropocentric: believes humans must sustainably manage the global system
    * Humans are not dependent on nature but nature is there to benefit from mankind
  * Technocentric: believes that technological developments can provide solutions to environmental problems

    1. Environmental managers → technocentrists
    2. Extreme technocentrists → cornucopians

Cornucopians: people who see the world as having infinite resources to benefit humanity. They think that technology can solve any problem
Environmental managers: believe that we have an ethical duty to protect and nurture the earth
Biocentric: thinkers see all life as shaving value for its own sake, not just for humans. Humans should not cause premature extinction of any species
* the ultimate source of energy for all organisms → sun
Deep ecologists: put more value on nature than humanity. They believe in biologists, universal rights where all species and ecosystems have value and humans cannot interfere with it

1.2 - Systems and Models

System: set of interrelated parts working together to make a complex whole, can be living or nonliving. Systems are all more than the sum of their parts
  * Can exist in many scales (large or small)
  * Can be open, closed, or isolated, though most systems are open
  * Material and energy undergo transfers and transformations in flowing from one storage to the next
  * Biosphere = atmosphere + lithosphere + hydrosphere + ecosphere
Systems can be closed, open, or isolated
Biome: can be seen as an ecosystem. It helps if the ecosystem has clear boundaries
Biosphere: is a fragile skin on planet earth. Includes atmosphere (air), lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water)
All systems have:

  1. Systems (stores of matter/energy)
  2. Flows (into, through, and out of the system)
  3. Inputs
  4. Outputs
  5. Boundaries
  6. Processes (which transfer or transform energy or matter from storage to storage)

Matter (material) and energy flow through ecosystems as:
  * Transfers: when energy or matter flows and changes location but does not change its state
    * Movement of material → in a non-living process
    * The movement of energy
    * Movement of material through living organisms
Transformations: when energy or matter flow and changes its state, a change in the chemical nature, a change in state or energy
  * Matter to matter
  * Matter to energy
  * Energy to energy
Transfers require less energy → more efficient than transformations

An open system exchanges matter and energy with their environments; all ecosystems are open systems
  * Examples: in forest ecosystems:
    * Plants fix energy from light energy entering the system during photosynthesis
    * Nitrogen from the air is fixed by soil bacteria
    * Water is lost through evaporation and transpiration from plants
A closed system exchanges energy (not matter) with its environment. They are extremely rare in nature
* Light energy enters the earth’s ecosystem in large amounts and some is eventually returned to space as long-wave energy (heat). This is how a closed system operates.
An isolated system neither exchanges matter nor energy with its environment. They do not naturally exist; the entire universe is an isolated system.

Models are simplified versions of systems, it could be:
  * A physical model (a wind tunnel)
  * A software model (climate change or evolution)
  * Mathematical diagrams
  * Data flow diagrams
Advantages of Models:
  * Easier to work with than complex reality
  * Used to predict the effect of a change of input
  * Can be applied to other situations
  * Used to visualise small and large things
  * Can help us observe patterns
Disadvantages of models:
  * Predictions may be inaccurate
  * Accuracy is lost
  * Model will be wrong if our assumptions are wrong
Sustainability is achieved only when economy, society, and the environment overlap

1.3 - Energy and Equilibrium

First law of thermodynamics: principle of conservation of energy
* Principle of conservation of energy: states that energy in isolated systems can be transformed but not created or destroyed
Second law of thermodynamics: states that energy is transformed through energy transfers
   * Entropy: a measure of the amount of disorder in a system
     * Refers to the spreading out of dispersal of energy
     * More energy = less order
     * When entropy is used to do work, some energy is always wasted as heat energy
   * Energy = work + heat (+other wasted energy)

Efficiency: the useful energy, the work or output produced by a process divided by the amount of energy consumed being the input to the the process
  * Efficiency = work or energy produced / energy consumed
  * Efficiency = useful output / input
    * TIP: multiply by 100% if you need the answer in a percentage
Equilibrium: the tendency of the system to return to an original state following disturbance. At an equilibrium; a state of balance exists among the components of a system
* Types of Equilibrium: static, steady state, stable, unstable

Steady-state equilibrium: a characteristic of an open system where there are continents inputs and outputs of energy and matter, the system remains in constant state
* No long-term changes, however, small fluctuations occur in the short term

\
Fig. 1 Steady State Diagram

Static equilibrium: no change occurs over time. Most non-living systems are in a state of static equilibrium
* This cannot occur in a living system, it can only occur in an isolated system

\
Fig. 2 Static state diagram

Stable equilibrium: the system tends to return to the same equilibrium after a disturbance

\
Fig.3 Stable state diagram

Unstable equilibrium: the system will return to a new equilibrium after a disturbance

\
Fig. 4 Unstable state diagram

Feedback loop: when information that starts as a reaction in turn may input more information which may start another reaction
* This is a way that the input is affected by the output. In a stable equilibrium, feedback returns the equilibrium to its original state.
* In an unstable equilibrium, feedback returns the equilibrium to a different state

Negative feedback loop: stabilises steady state equilibria, occur when the output of a process inhibits or reverses the operation of the same process in such a way to reduce change, counteracts deviation.
* Returns back to its original state
* Stabilising as they reduce change
Positive feedback loop: will amplify changes and bring the system towards a new tipping point where a new equilibrium is adopted
  * Change a system to a new state
  * Destabilising as they increase change
  * Albedo: reflecting ability of a surface

Resilience: the ability of a system to return to its initial state after a disturbance
* If a system has low resilience it will enter a new state
* Generally considered a good thing, for example, bacterium will not be affected from antibiotics which is not good
Factors affecting ecosystem resilience:
  * Biodiversity increases resilience
  * Species that can shift their geographical range → more resilient
  * Fast reproductive rate means faster recovery

An ecological tipping point: is a reached when an ecosystem experiences a shift to a new state
* Significant changes occur in biodiversity and services it provides
* Changes are long lasting and hard to reverse

Lake eutrophication: nutrients added to a lake may not change much until enough nutrients are added to change its state
* Occurs when bodies of water are overly enriched with minerals and nutrients which promotes the growth of algae
Extinction of a keystone species: A keystone species within an ecosystem is fundamental to keeping the ecosystem stable and supported
* Their extinction can negatively affect the ecosystem
Coral reef death: if ocean acidity rises enough the reef coral dies and cannot regenerate

1.4 - sustainability

Sustainability: the use of resources that allows full natural replacement of the resources used and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction
* Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Ecological overshoot: when a sustainable resource is exploited to its maximum
* Replenishing the resources will take longer
* This increased demand is due to level of overall consumption, per capita consumption
Natural capital: natural resources that can produce a sustainable natural income of goods or services
* Economics use the world “capital” ro describe the means of production. For example: Factories, tools, machines…
* Used to create goods which provide income

Environmental impact assessments (EIA): is a report prepared before a development project changes the use of lans. It weighs up the advantages and disadvantages of the development
* Will qualify changes to microclimate, biodiversity, scenic and amenity value resulting from the changes
* These measurements represent the “baseline study”
Baseline study: an analysis of a current situation to identify the starting points for a project

Ecological footprint (EF): the area of land and water required to sustainability provide all resources at the rate which they are being consumed by a given population
* A model used to estimate the demands that human populations place on the environmental

\
Fig. 5 Ecological Footprint

1.5 - Humans and Pollution

Pollution: the introduction/addition of a substance to the environment by human activity. This addition is considered harmful to the environment
  * Pollutants released by human activities: matter, energy, living organisms
  * Matter (gasses, liquids, solids) which is organic (contains carbon atoms) or inorganic
  * Energy (sound, light, heat)
  * Living organisms
Primary pollutants: are active on emission (carbon monoxide) from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
* Causes headaches, fatigue, and can kill
Secondary pollutants: are formed by primary pollutants undergoing physical or chemical changes

Point source and nonpoint source pollutants:

  1. Nonpoint course (NPS):
     * Release of pollutants from dispersed origins, example: exhaust gases from vehicles
     * Has many sources (hard to detect its origin)
     * Rainwater can collect nitrates which are used as fertilisers
     * Air pollution can be blown and mix with other chemicals
  2. Point source (PS):
     * Release of pollutants from a single site
     * Easier to locate pollution
     * Easier to manage and can be found more easily

Persistent organic pollutant (POPs): a toxic environmental contaminant which requires special handling and disposal
  * Resistant to breaking down and remain active in the environment for a long time
  * Can cause significant harm, Health wise, due to the heavy pollution we are inhaling
  * High molecular weight
  * Not soluble in water
  * Highly soluble in fats and liquids (can pass through cell membranes)
Biodegradable pollutants: do not persist in the environment and break down quickly. May be broken down by decomposer organisms or physical processes. Example: Light, heat
Acute pollution: when large amounts of pollutants are released causing a lot of harm
Chronic pollution: long term release of a pollutant but in small amounts
  * Often goes undetected for a long time
  * More difficult to clean up
  * Often spreads widely

Pollution:

1. $Direct measurements of air pollution:$
 * acidity of rainwater
 * amount of gas in the atmosphere
 * amount of particles emitted by a diesel engine
 * amount of lead in the atmosphere
 2. $Direct measurements of water or soil pollution:$
 * nitrates and phosphates
 * amount of organic matter or bacteria
 * heavy metal concentrations
 3. $Indirect measurements of pollution:$
 * Measuring abiotic factors that change as a result of the pollutant (oxygen content of water)
 * Recording the presence of indicator species, only found if the water is polluted or unpolluted

How can pollution be managed?
  * By changing the human activity which produced it
  * By working to restore or clean up damaged ecosystems
  * By regulating or preventing the release of the pollutant

Human activity: promoting alternative technologies through
   * Controlling release of pollutant/release of pollutant into environment
   * Impact of pollution on ecosystems
   * Campaigns, education, community groups, governmental legislation, economic incentives/disincentives
Controlling release of pollutant/release of pollutant into environment:
* Legislating and regulating standards of emission
* Developing/applying technologies for extracting pollutant from emissions
Impact of pollutant on ecosystems: Clean up and restoration of damaged systems:
* Extracting and restoration of damaged systems
* Replanting/restocking lost or depleted populations and communities