hydrocarbon
an organic compound containing only C and H
isomer
compounds with the same molecular formula but different 3D structures
structural isomer
differs in covalent bonds between atoms
geometric isomer
differs in the arrangement of atoms around a double bond
enantiomer (stereoisomer)
molecules that are mirror images of each other
carbon chain (skeleton)
-varies in length -varies in number & location of double bonds -can be branched/unbranched -can be arranged in rings
functional group
-atoms attached to a carbon skeleton involved in chemical reactions -determines the characteristics of a molecule -compounds that contain them are usually hydrophilic
hydroxyl group
-O bonded to H -needs to be bonded w/ a carbon skeleton
alcohol
organic compound that contains a hydroxyl group (i.e. ethanol)
carbonyl group
-C double bonded to O -can be located within or at the end of a carbon skeleton -works w/ carboxyl groups to make sugars
aldehyde
organic compound in which the carbonyl group is attached at the end of a carbon chain
ketone
organic compound in which the carbonyl group is attached to a carbon atom within the carbon chain
carboxyl group
-C double bonded to O and single bonded to a hydroxyl -acts as an acid by donating H+ -found in all proteins
carboxylic acid
organic compound that contains a carboxyl group
amino group
-N bonded to two H atoms -acts as a base by picking up H+ from a solution to become ionized (NH3+) -found in all proteins
amine
compound containing an amino group
amino acid
-Organic compounds containing a central C bonded to an H atom, amino group, carboxyl group, and R group -R-group that projects from the backbone makes each amino acid unique -Building blocks of proteins
phosphate group
-P doubled bonded to O single bonded to 3 O atoms -acts as an acid, losing H+
phosphate
-organic compound containing phosphate groups -involved in energy transfers (ATP)
sulfhydryl group
-S bonded to H -groups can react & form a crosslink that stabilizes the structure of many proteins
thiol
organic compound that contains a sulfhydryl group
methyl group
-C bonded to 3 H atoms -hydrophobic -nonpolar
methylated compounds
-organic compound that contains a methyl group -component of DNA that affects gene expression
monomer
subunit that serves as a building block of polymers
polymer
-many monomers linked together by covalent bonds -caused by dehydration
dehydration synthesis (condensation reaction/polymerization)
-covalently bonding monomers to form a polymer through the removal of H2O (H and OH) -energy can be stored when the bonds are formed
hydrolysis
-chemical reaction in which bonds between molecules in a polymer are broken down by the addition of H2O to form monomers (H and OH) -energy is released when the bonds are broken
macromolecule (organic compound)
-giant molecule (polymer) formed by the joining of smaller molecules (monomers) through dehydration -contains carbon
nucleic acids
-contains C, H, O, N, P -polymer made of nucleotide monomers -sequence of nucleotides carries information
DNA
-Polymer that stores hereditary information -Single molecule contains 2 polynucleotides -Double helix formed by the twisting of 2 complimentary strands of nucleotides -Backbone consists of alternating sugars and phosphates -Strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of nitrogenous bases
nitrogenous base pairs
-adenine w/ thymine (uracil in RNA) -cytosine w/ guanine
RNA
-Polymer that synthesizes proteins -Consists of a single-stranded polypeptide -Contains ribose -Uracil instead of thymine -Copied from a DNA molecule -Shorter than DNA
nucleotide
-building block of DNA/RNA -consists of a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose/ribose), nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group
polynucleotide
-polymer of nucleotide monomers -backbone consists of alternating sugars and phosphates -bases are attached to the sugars
gene
-String of nucleotides -Sequence of nucleotides determine the primary sequence of amino acids of the produced protein -Contains the information necessary to build protein/molecule of RNA -Carries information that is then translated into the amino acid sequence of proteins
chromosome
-long DNA molecule with part of or all of the genes -genes are separated by junk DNA
genome
complete collection of an organism's chromosomes and the genes within them
carbohydrates
-contains C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio -used as fuel for cellular work (form of immediate energy) -form of glucose -hydrophilic
membrane carbohydrates
-Marks the cell's identity -Controls the cell's activities -Protein made by other cells can bind to them
glucose
-Monosaccharide that serves as a building block for many polysaccharides -Oxidation in cellular respiration is a source of ATP -Carbon skeleton can be used to build many organic molecules
glycosidic bond
covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate w/ another group
monosaccharide
-monomer of carbohydrates -simple sugar -similar 1:2:1 ratio -contain numerous hydroxyl groups and a carbonyl group -carbon skeletons range from 3 to 7 C's
polysaccharide
-long chains of sugars -monosaccharides joined together via dehydration -act as identification tags on cell membranes
lactose
-disaccharide (sugar) consisting of glucose and galactose
sucrose
-disaccharide consisting of glucose and fructose -circulates in plant sap -obtained from sugar cane and sugar beets to form table sugar
maltose
-disaccharide consisting of 2 glucose -produced by the digestion of starch in a sprouting seed/intestine of an animal
cellulose (fiber)
-polysaccharide that composes plant cell walls -provides structural support -most abundant organic compound -indigestible without the help of bacteria
chitin
polysaccharide that provides structural support in animal cells
starch
-polysaccharide found in the chloroplast -stores energy -made of glucose
glycogen
-polysaccharide that stores energy in animal cells by linking sugar molecules with insoluble grains -found in muscles & liver
lipids
-contains C, H, and O -3 fatty acids joined to 1 glycerol -stores energy between C and H bonds -hydrophobic
plaque
lipid-containing deposit in a blood vessel
triglyceride (fat molecule)
-Glycerol bound w/ 3 fatty aids -Varies in the length of hydrocarbon tails (4 to 26 C's) -Varies in the number and location of double bonds (0 to 4) -Stores energy in spherical droplets -Contains more energy per gram than any other biological fuel
ester bond (ester linkage)
joins fatty acid tails to a glycerol backbone
glycerol
-consists of three carbons -each carbon is bonded to a hydroxyl and H
phospholipid
-glycerol bound to 2 fatty acid tails and phosphate group -forms cell membrane -hydrophobic fatty acid tails face inward, mingling together -hydrophilic heads face outward, exposed to aqueous solutions on both sides of the membrane
steroid
-lipid consisting of 4 fused rings -differ in what is attached to the rings -act as chemical messengers
anabolic steroid
-steroids used to stimulate muscle growth -can prevent bone growth -synthetic variants of testosterone
cholesterol
-Steroid that is an important component of animal cell membranes -Acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other steroids -Ratio to other membrane lipids impacts the ability of the cell & substances that are allowed to cross the membrane
vitamin D
steroid that aids in calcium & phosphate metabolism
estradiol
steroid female sex hormone produced by the ovaries
testosterone
steroid male sex hormone produced by the testes
wax
-dense, waterproof lipids -saves water in plants and animals by coating their surfaces
cuticle
waxy outercoating of plants
lipoprotein
-Lipid bound to proteins/phospholipids -Phospholipids & proteins line the surface (they have parts that are compatible with water) -Fats and steroids occupy the interior -Helps lipids move through the body
fatty acid
-Consists of a carboxyl group and long hydrocarbon chain -Tails contain only nonpolar (C-H) bonds -Hydrophobic
unsaturated fatty acid
-Contains at least one double bond (kink) in their hydrocarbon chain -Reduced number of H's -Usually found in vegetable oils -Liquid at room temperature -Stimulates the breakdown and secretion of cholesterol.
saturated fatty acid
-Contain only single bonds in their hydrocarbon chains -2 to 3 H's on each C -Found in animal fats -Solid at room temperature -Impede the excretion of cholesterol -Stimulate cholesterol synthesis in the liver
kink
-Formed by double bonds -Prevents fatty acids from packing tightly -Keeps them liquid at room temperature
trans fat
-unsaturated fat formed during hydrogenation of saturated fat -contain fewer double bonds -linked to health risks (i.e. heart attacks)
hydrogenation
process of adding hydrogen to double bonds
proteins
-contains C, H, O, N, sometimes S -polymer of amino acids -made from varying combinations of 20 amino acids -consists of one or more polypeptides folded into a specific structure
primary structure
-Linear string of amino acids that forms the backbone of the polypeptide chain -Determined by genetic info
secondary structure
-Local patterns or folds of a polypeptide chain between amino & carboxyl groups -Caused by interactions between R-groups
alpha helix
coiling of polypeptides
beta-pleated sheet
folding of polypeptides
tertiary structure
-Overall globular (3D) shape of a polypeptide due to interactions of the R groups of the amino acids making up the chain -Hydrophobic R-groups cluster in the center -Positively/negatively charged R-groups can form ionic bonds -Polar R-groups can form hydrogen bonds -Sulfur-containing R-groups can form covalent bonds
quaternary structure
-2 or more individual polypeptide subunits -not present in all proteins
denaturation
-the unraveling of a protein, losing its structure and function -the separation of 2 strands of DNA -caused by changes in pH, salt concentration, or temperature
transport proteins
-embedded in cell membranes -moves sugar molecules & other nutrients to cells -carries molecules from place to place
structural proteins
-Shape cells -Anchor cell parts -Bind cells together, making organized units
signal proteins
-Hormonal proteins that coordinate an organism’s activities by acting as signals between cells -Bind to receptor proteins that can then relay messages in a cell
sensory proteins
-proteins that detect environmental changes (i.e. light) -respond by emitting or producing signals that call for a response
storage protein
-proteins that stockpile building components in cells that can be used to make other proteins -storage proteins in seeds provide raw materials used by the developing plant
contractile protein (motor proteins)
-Protein that move parts of the cell -Works together in muscle cells to move a whole animal
gene regulatory protein
-Protein that bind to DNA in specific locations -Control whether or not genes will be read -Allows cells to become specialized for different functions & respond to changes in their surroundings
antibody
defensive proteins of the immune system that bind to pathogenic invaders, marking the foreign objects for destruction
enzyme
-Organic protein that changes the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed by it -Catalyze and regulate chemical reactions -Only work on specific substrates -Lower activation energy -Reusable
active site
binding site between an enzyme and its substrate
lock and key hypothesis
the active site of an enzyme is specifically shaped to fit only 1 specific substrate.
lactase
enzyme that only works on the substrate lactose
peptide bond
-covalent bond between an amino group of one subunit w/ a carboxyl group of another subunit -formed by dehydration
disulfide bridge (bond)
-covalent bond between S atoms of 2 cysteine amino acids -stabilizes structure of proteins
covalent bond
formed by the equal sharing of outer-shell electrons
ionic bond
-formed by the transfer of electrons -1 atom loses an electron to form a positive ion & the other atom gains an electron to form a negative ion -held together by charge differences
hydrogen bond
-formed by the attraction between H+ of one water molecule & O- atom of another water molecule -holds water molecules together -form, break, and reform with great frequency because they are weak
polar bond
-formed by the unequal sharing of electrons -one atom is positively charged and the other is negatively charged
nonpolar bond
-formed by the equal sharing of electrons -no charge separation
cohesion
-sticking together of 2 like molecules (H2O) -caused by the attraction of opposite charges (polarity)
adhesion
-sticking together of 2 unlike molecules (H2O & another substance) -caused by the attraction of opposite charges (polarity)