Studied by 1 person
Social Comparison
observing the behavior of others to inform our own
Normative social influence
people are more likely to conform if they believe a sufficient number of others will conform and expect them to conform
Cost-Benefit Analysis
valuing personal outcome vs. social norms
Group Size
Cooperation decreases in larger groups/deindividuation (loss of self-awareness & feelings of anonymity)
Culture
Norms, values, cultural dimensions
Ways to improve cooperation
Create a team identity to avoid cultural/social identity interference
Set a common goal for all members to work towards
Use positive reinforcement/rewards as a benefit for cooperation
Decrease group size to avoid feelings of anonymity
Studies for cooperation and competition
tajfel- (Social Identity Theory)
(the one with the two randomized groups of boys play competitive games and split money.)
aim: to investigate how even minimal groups affect behavior
Results→ created the largest money gap between the groups. They also rated their teammates more likable.
Experiment
Opportunity sampling
People tend to favor people of their own category/group/community
tauer and haackiewicz-
(the one where boys were tested on their physical (basketball) capabilites before and after the introduction of competition)
aim: to investigate the effects of cooperation and competition on intrinsic motivation and performance in sports
procedure: Each participant was pre-tested on their throwing and scoring ability. 3 conditions:
The pure cooperation condition: the paired participants pre-test scores were combined and they were told that they had to beat this score by 1 point by working together
The pure competition condition: one boy was pitted against the other to see who could score the most baskets
The intergroup competition condition: one pair was put in competition against another pair so they had to work together to win
Results: The intergroup competition condition resulted in the highest performance and self-reported enjoyment scores. There was no significant difference between the other 2 conditions.
Experiment
Opportunity sampling
coordination, timing, and motivation improved with intergroup competition
Prejudice
Biased thinking towards an individual based on group membership
Discrimination
Negative actions towards an outgroup
Studies for Prejudice and Discrimination
fein and spencer
(the one where undergrads were given false feedback on an intelligence test, and reviewed/rated and actor(settings were whether the actor was described as gay or not and the feedback given to the students. one group of undergrads was told they were in the top 10% of university while the other was told they scored below average)
aim: To determine to what extent self-esteem impacts discrimination
Results:
if participant recieved a “below average score” they were more likely to rate the actor in highly negative and stereotypical terms when the actor was implied to be gay
If the actor was described as heterosexual, then there was no difference in the quality of feedback from the two groups.
It appears that lowering one’s self-esteem makes one more likely to discriminate.
The Theory of threatened egotism
harris and fiske- brain localization
(the one where people saw different pictures of people and objects and found that they had negative responses to people of out-groups, homeless and poor). Quantitative, experiment, Convenience
aim: to examine the roles of the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala in determining attitudes towards drug users and the homeless population
process: undergraduate students were shown pictures of objects and people while connected to an fMRI: (fMRIs show oxygen levels in the brain; the more oxygen, the more active that part of the brain is at a given time.)
The responses of both the amygdala and the medial prefrontal cortex were recorded by the scanner.The amygdala emits an immediate reaction to a new situation or object. The medial prefrontal cortex asses more slowly, in response to the amygdala.
results: *Images of people considered outsiders to the participants (homeless population & drug users) showed no reaction in the prefrontal cortex. These images only registered in the amygdala, most similar to reactions of disgust to objects such as a dirty sock.
biological mechanisms were capable of dehumanizing people who were stereotyped as belonging to extreme out-groups.
Drug addicts and the homeless were seen as inhuman.
Integrated Threat Theory
A cognitive explanation of prejudice
Claims prejudice has 3 components:
Stereotyping: expectations about outgroups that lead to prejudice
Realistic Threats: competition for economic resources
Symbolic Threats: threats to one’s culture resulting from the integration of outgroup values and social norms
heuristics
Shortcuts or tricks to making easy decisions;
may influence how people interpret the behavior of others
confirmation bias
people tend to look for information that confirms their stereotypes or prejudices —not the opposite. In order to challenge stereotypes and maybe change them, members of the group who do not fit the stereotype need to be presented to those who hold the stereotype.
The Theory of threatened egotism
argues that intergroup discrimination occurs when our own perception of self is threatened. By acting out against an out-group, we are able to feel better ourselves, boosting or restoring self-esteem. Evidence for this was found in a study by Fein & Spencer (1997)
prejudice-integrated threat theory
symbolic threats
These are perceived threats to one’s culture as a result of the integration of members of an out-group with morals, social norms, and values that are distinctly different from those of the in-group.
conflict
occurs when what one group wants, another group sees as harmful to its interests
Origins of Conflict and Conflict Resolution Studies
Zak- Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT)
(the one where alpha-males were created by getting either a testosterone gel or a placebo and then given blood test(testosterone gel made for 2x testosterone) then made to play a trust game where they were encourage to be generous with money for others and when they werent and the offer was rejected both men lost money) quantitative, experiment, opportunity
aim: To study the effect of testosterone on males generosity and sense of aggression.
process: gel(placebo or real) → wait during night → blood test in morning where testosterone in experimental gel doubled → trust game that had to do with money exchanges and acceptances.
results: testosterone heavy men were 27% stingier
men with higher testosterone levels are more selfish and prone to punishing others due to an increase in distrust.
Sherif- Robber’s cave experiment- (RCT)
(the one where boys who were white/middle class and didn’t know each other were placed in two summer camps and each group participated in team bonding. when they learn of eachother’s existence they begin to play friendly competitions but it escalated to acts of vandelism and bad mouthing the oppostite group)
aim: To investigate to what extent intergroup conflict may occur
results: Teams were better at working together when the activity benefited them both.
In-group → they favored kids in their own camp group
Out-group discrimination → they set fire to each other’s flags and spoke ill of each other
people favor those in their own group and view them in a more positive light. they want to make their group the best group.
limits:
poor transferability as the situations the kids were placed in such as lack of resources and pettiness are not common.
all kids were from similar/identical privileged backgrounds
Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT)
Developed by Muzafer Sherif, this theory states that intergroup conflict arises when groveling to oppose (incompatible) goals and competing for scarce resources. These opposing goals, according to the theory, are the reason why groups develop in-group norms, display acts of in-group favoritism, and discriminate against out-groups.
The model attempts to explain why prejudice, negative stereotypes, and discrimination are developed towards members of other social groups
Strengths of RCT
Lots of research done that confirms and supports RCT
Backed up by common sense (“face validity”) - we can think of lots of examples that could support this theory
Limitations of RCT
Foundational study is the Robber’s Cave Study - which was done on young boys, not adults in a situation that created conflict over resources
Transferability (generalizability) is an issue
Elements of culture that could impact it (America’s individualistic nature, etc.)
Intergroup Contact
by assembling people without regard for race, color, religion, or national origin, we can thereby destroy stereotypes and develop friendly attitudes.
Limitations of Intergroup Contact
It is difficult to create a contact situation that involves overcoming a meaningful, practical obstacle.
The results of the experience may be limited to the context of the meeting and cannot be generalized.
The anxiety felt by the participants may interfere with the experience
Group polarization
is the phenomenon where the decisions and opinions of people in a group become more extreme than their actual, privately held beliefs
leads to the belief that the in-group can do no wrong and their motives are positive. On the other hand, the out-group can do nothing right and their motives are negative
Discuss a biological approach to understanding group dynamics
Harris and Fiske + Zak
Discuss a cognitive approach to understanding group dynamics.
Tauer & Haackwiewicz + Fein & Spencer
Discuss a sociocultural approach to understanding group dynamics
Tajfel + Sherif
Discuss ethical considerations in the study of group dynamics.
Tauer + Tajfel
Discuss one or more research methods used to study group dynamics
Sherif(field experiment) + Zak(lab experiment)
Discuss research on cooperation and/or competition
Discuss one theory of cooperation and/or competition.
Tajfel + Tauer & Haackwiewicz
Discuss prejudice and/or discrimination.
Fein & Spencer + Harris & Fiske
Discuss the origin of conflict and/or conflict resolution
Zak + Sherif
Note
Flashcard