BIO 270: Exam 1

Anatomy

The study of the structure/morphology of the human body and its parts; derived from Greek for “a cutting up”

Physiology

The study of the functions of the human body and its parts; derived from Greek for “relationship to nature”

Organization in the Human Body

* Subatomic Particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up cells
* Atom: tiny particles that make up chemicals (hydrogen, carbon)
* Molecule: particles consisting of atoms joined together (water, glucose)
* Macromolecule: large particles consisting of molecules (DNA, protein)
* Organelle: functional part of a cell (mitochondrion, lysosome)
* Cell: basic unit of structure and functions (muscle, nerve, or blood cell)
* Tissue: layer or mass of cells with specific function (adipose tissue)
* Organ: group of different tissues with a function (heart, kidney, stomach)
* Organ System: group of organs with common function (digestive system)
* Organism: composed of organ systems interacting (human)

‘Key Concepts’ in Anatomy and Physiology

* The cell: All living things consist of cells.
* Internal environment: Environment within body, in which cells live. Consists of extracellular fluid.
* Homeostasis: Maintenance of constant conditions(temperature, pH, concentrations of ions or molecules, etc.
* Interdependency of cells: Cells depend on each other, loss of function of some cells will impact others.
* Structure and Function: Function relies on structure. Structure helps us understand function, and vice versa.

Major Characteristics of Life

1. Cellular composition
2. Growth, development and reproduction
3. Responsiveness to the environment
4. Complexity and order
5. Maintenance of homeostasis
6. Evolution
7. Metabolism

Major Requirements of Organisms

1\. Chemicals (Water, Metabolism, Transport, Temperature)

2\. Pressure (Atmospheric for breathing, hydrostatic for blood ,etc.)

3\. Heat (Important for metabolism(chemical reactions)

Main Portions

Axial portion: head, neck, and trunk

Appendicular portion: upper and lower limbs

Cranial Cavity

Houses Brain

Vertebral Canal

Contains spinal cord

Thoracic Cavity

Houses lungs and thoracic viscera

Abdominalpelvic Cavity

Contains abdominal and pelvic viscera

Diaphragm

Separates thoracic and abdominal cavities

Mediastinum

Contains the thoracic viscera

Abdominal Cavity

Extends from diaphragm to top of pelvis, and contains stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys, and small intestine

Pelvic Cavity

enclosed by pelvic bones, and contains end of large intestine, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs

Oral Cavity

Mouth

Nasal Cavity

Nose

Orbital Cavities

Eyes

Middle Ear Cavities

Ears

Serous Membranes

Surround the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

Parietal

Outer Membrane

Viscera

Inner membrane

Pleural

Lungs

Pericardial

Heart

Peritoneal

Abdomen

Chemical Reactions

Occur when chemical bonds form or break between atoms, ions, or molecules

Synthesis

A+B → AB

Decomposition

AB → A+B

Exchange

AB+CD → AD+CB

Reversible

A+B ⟷  AB

Buffers

Chemicals that act to resist pH changes

Atomic Number

The number of protons

Mass Number

Number of neutrons

Cation

Positively charged ion

Anion

Negatively charged ion

Electrons

Orbit the nucleus and control bonding

Molecular Formulas

Depict the elements present and the number of each atom present in the molecule

Structural Formulas

Show how atoms bond and are arranged in various molecules

Chemical Bonds

Form when atoms combine with other atoms

Ionic Bonds

Attraction of oppositely charged ion (caused by gain/loss of electrons)

Covalent Bonds

Sharing of electrons

Nonpolar Covalent

equal sharing of eletrons

Polar Covalent

Unequal sharing of electrons

Hydrogen Bonds

an attraction between the partially positive and negative regions of two polar molecules

Electrolytes

Substances that release ions in water. The solution can conduct an electric current

Acids

Electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions in water

Bases

Substances that release ions that can combine with hydrogen ions

Salts

Electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base

pH scale runs from

0-14

pH < 7

Acid

pH > 7

Base

pH = 7

Neutral

Organic Molecules

Contain Carbon and Hydrogen

Will dissolve in water or organic liquid

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

Carbohydrates

Major source of cellular energy

Supply materials to build cell structures

Classified by size: monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

Lipids

Used for long term storage of energy

Important components of cell membranes

Triglycerides (fats), phospholipids, and steroids

Proteins

Used as structural materials, energy source, hormones, receptors, enzymes, antibodies

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death

Simple Diffusion

No energy, small non-polar things can slide right through

Down the concentration gradient through the phospholipids

Facilitated Diffusion

No energy, moving from areas of high to low concentration

Moves through a protein because the object is polar/charged or big

Osmosis

Special case of facilitated diffusion

Diffusion of water through aquaporins

Filtration

No energy, Process that forces molecules through membranes by exerting pressure

Used to separate solids from water, or small particles from large ones

Direct Active Transport

ATP is used by the protein moving the substance

Secondary (Indirect) Active Transport

Moving sodium ions down their gradient by a carrier protein

Phagocytosis

Enveloping of bigger particles when cells clean up a bacteria

Pinocytosis

Enveloping of liquid particles restores the internal membrane

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Specific molecules, cell surface as receptors that bring in surrounding fluid

Exocytosis

Releasing objects out of the cell

Transcytosis

Quickly transports substances from one end of cell to the other

Moves substances across barrier formed by tightly connected cells

Stages of Cell Cycle

Interphase

Mitosis

Cytokinesis

Interphase

Growth of cell, maintenance of normal functions

Includes: G1, S, G2

Mitosis

Division of nucleus

Cytokinesis

Division of cytoplasm

Phases of Mitosis

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Prophase

Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes, nuclear envelope and nucleolus disperse

Metaphase

Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers, and align midway between centrioles

Anaphase

Chromosomes separate and move in opposite directions, toward centrioles

Telophase

Chromosomes return to chromatin structure, nuclear envelope forms, nucleoli become visible

Contact Inhibition

Healthy cells stop dividing when they become crowded

Tumors

Result of loss of control over the frequency of mitosis

Benign

Reamins in a local area

Malignant

Invasive, cancerous, can spread, or metastasize

Stem Cell

Cell that is a blank slate

Can differentiate as any of many cell types

Progenitor Cell

Narrowing of pluripotent cell (becomes specialized)

Totipotent

Daughter cells that can specialize to become any cell type

Pluripotent

Daughter cells that can become a limited number of cell types

Plasma Membrane

Structure: phospholipid bilayer + embedded proteins + cholesterol

Function: Outer barrier that separates the cell and outer environment. Controls what comes in and out of the cell

Nucleus

Structure: double membrane with pours that strictly control what goes in and out of the cell. Contains DNA that is packaged with protein.

Function: to hold DNA and control functions

Cytoplasm

Structure: watery substance in which everything in the cell exists.

Function: to hold organelles in place

Ribosomes

Structure: made of proteins and rRNA, floating around cytoplasm or on ER

Function: synthesis proteins and catalyze peptide bonds

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Structure: phospholipid bilayer that has ribosomes

Function: site of protein synthesis

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Structure: phospholipid bilayer that has no ribosomes

Function: synthesize lipids

Vesicles

Structure: spherical, small membrane, enclosed space

Function: transport things within/out of cell

Golgi Apparatus

Structure: stake of membranes, flattened stack of pancakes

Function: protein modification, directs vesicles that leave to different places

Mitochandria

Structure: two membranes, outside is smooth and inside in folded up

Function: central metabolism, site of ATP generation

Lysosomes

Structure: recycling center of cell

Function: break down old cell parts or engulfs things

Peroxisomes

Structure: surrounded by a single membrane

Function: break down fatty acids and release hydrogen peroxide

Microfilaments

Structure: made of the protein actin, long strands

Function: Push the edges out, allow cell to change shape and move

Microtubules

Structure: made of tubulin

Function: transportation system, move chromosomes during mitosis

Intermediate Filaments

Structure: more permanent structural fibers

Function: support shape of nerve cells, make cells tough

Centrosome

Structure: made of two centrioles

Function: organization and manufacture center for microtubules