PSY 3113 Chapter 5

Motivation

Motivation

The set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways

P = M + A + E

What is the formula for Job Performance?

Need

Anything an individual requires or wants

Need deficiency

leads to need to satisfy the need

Goal-directed behaviors

result from individuals trying

to satisfy their need deficiencies

Rewards and punishments

are consequences of the goal-directed behavior

Scientific Management

Approach to motivation that assumes that

employees are motivated by money

Human Relations Approach

Suggests that fostering a false sense of employees' inclusion in decision making will result in positive employee attitudes and motivation to work hard

Human Resource Approach

Assumes that people want to contribute

and are able to make genuine contributions to organizations

Task-Specific Self-Efficacy

A person's beliefs in his or her capabilities to do what is required to accomplish a specific task

Magnitude

Strength

Generality

Dimensions of Task-Specific Self-Efficacy (3)

Magnitude

beliefs about how difficult a specific task is to be accomplished

Strength

beliefs about how confident the person is that the specific task can

be accomplished

Generality

beliefs about the degree to which similar tasks can be accomplished

Need-Based Theories

Assume that need deficiencies cause behavior

Hierarchy of Needs

Assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance

Deficiency Needs

The three sets of needs at the bottom of the hierarchy, they must be satisfied for the individual to be fundamentally comfortable.

Growth Needs

they focus on personal growth and development.

Physiological Needs

the most basic human needs to be satisfied- water, food, shelter, and clothing

Security Needs

Things that offer safety and security, such as adequate housing and clothing and freedom from worry and anxiety

Belongingness Needs

the third level in the hierarchy, are primarily social

Esteem Needs

actually encompasses two slightly different kinds of needs: the need for a positive self-image and self-respect and the need to be respected by others

Self-Actualization Needs

These involve a person's realizing his or her full potential and becoming all that he or she can be.

Self-Actualization = Challenging Job

Esteem = Job Title

Belongingness = Friends in Work Group

Security = Pension Plan

Physiological = Base Salary

Organizational Examples of Each Need (Maslow)

ERG Theory

describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs

Existence

Relatedness

Growth Needs

The Three Basic Need Categories (Alderfer)

Existence needs

those necessary for basic human survival—roughly correspond to the physiological and security needs of Maslow's hierarchy.

Relatedness needs

those involving the need to relate to others-are similar to Maslow's belongingness and esteem needs.

Growth needs

are analogous to Maslow's needs for self-esteem and self-actualization.

The Satisfaction-Progression Concept

suggests that after satisfying one category of needs, a person progresses to the next level.

The Frustration-Aggression Component

suggests that a person who is frustrated by trying to satisfy a higher level of needs eventually will regress to the preceding level

Two-Factor Theory (Dual-Structure Theory)

Identifies motivation factors, which affect

satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine dissatisfaction

Motivation factors

Achievement, recognition, and the opportunity to plan and control their own work were often cited by people as primary causes of satisfaction and motivation.

Hygiene factors

Factors—such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary—that, when adequate in a job, placate workers. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied.

Achievement

Recognition

The Work Itself

Responsibility

Advancement and Growth

Motivation Factors (5)

Supervision

Working Conditions

Interpersonal Relationships

Pay and Job Security

Company Policies

Hygiene Factors (5)

Acquired Needs Framework

Centers on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power

Need For Achievement

The desire to accomplish a task or goal more

effectively than was done in the past

Need For Affiliation

The need for human companionship

Need For Power

The desire to control the resources in one's environment

Process-Based Perspectives

Focus on how people behave in their efforts to satisfy their needs

Equity Theory

Focuses on people's desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity

Equity

The belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others; inequity is the belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others

Inputs

are an individual's contributions to the organization—

such factors as education, experience, effort, and loyalty.

Outcomes

are what the person receives in return—pay, recognition, social relationships, intrinsic rewards, and similar things

Input (Self) Input (Other)

----------------Compared With-----------------------

Outcome (Self) Outcome (Other)

How Does the Equity Theory Look?

1. Change Inputs

2. Change Outcomes

3. Alter Perceptions of Self

4. Alter Perception of Other

5. Change Comparisons

6. Leave Situation

Motivations to Reduce Inequity (6)

Expectancy Theory

Suggests that people are motivated by how much

they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it

Effort-to-performance expectancy

is a person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to successful performance

Performance-to-outcome expectancy (also known as instrumentality)

is a person's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain other outcomes

Outcome

Anything that results from performing a particular behavior

Valence

The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a particular outcome has for a person

Porter and Lawler Model

a theory where the relationship between job satisfaction and performance is mediated by work-related rewards

Intrinsic rewards

are intangible—a feeling of accomplishment, a sense of achievement, and so forth.

Extrinsic rewards

are tangible outcomes such as pay and promotion.

Learning

is a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential that results from direct or indirect experience

Classical Conditioning

is a simple form of learning in which a conditioned response is linked with an unconditional stimulus.

Contemporary Learning Theory

generally views learning as a cognitive process; that is, it assumes that people are conscious, active participants in how they learn

Reinforcement Theory

Based on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences

Social learning

occurs when people observe the behavior of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result (some experts refer to social learning as social cognitive theory).

• Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively

simple

• Observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not

intellectual

• Learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed

behavior

Conditions for Social Learning (3)

Behavior Modification

is the application of reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of people in organizational settings.

Positive Reinforcement

Involves the use of rewards to increase the likelihood that a desired behavior—high performance, for instance—will be repeated.

Negative Reinforcement

is based on the removal of current or future unpleasant

consequences to increase the likelihood that someone will repeat a behavior. In other words, avoidance or removal of something undesirable can be motivating.

Punishment

is the application of negative outcomes to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Extinction

involves the removal of other reinforcement (positive or negative) following the incidence of the behavior to be extinguished to decrease the likelihood of that behavior being repeated

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

is one in which the desired behavior is reinforced each time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement Schedule

is one in which the desired behavior is reinforced only part of the time.

Fixed-Interval

Variable-Interval

Fixed-Ratio

Variable-Ratio

The four types of partial reinforcement schedules

Fixed-ratio

Desired behavior is reinforced after a specified number of correct responses

Fixed-interval

Desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time

has passed

Variable-ratio

Desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of behaviors

Variable-interval

Desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable

amount of time has elapsed