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dna (deoxyribose nucleic acid)
the blueprints of your own unique personal inherited traits
structure of dna
two chains (double strand) of nucleotides
twisted into a double helix
joined by hydrogen bonds
dna nucleotides 3 different parts
1) deoxyribose sugar (5-carbon sugar)
2) phosphate group (backbone of DNA)
3) nitrogenous base (contains nitrogen)
dna nucleotides have 4 different types of nitrogenous bases
1) purines= adenine (a) guanine (g)
2) pyrimidines= thymine (t) cytosine (c )
complementary base pairing rule: (DNA)
ADENINE always joins THYMINE (A→ T)
GUANINE always joins CYTOSINE (G→ C)
RNA
ribo nucleic acid
structure of rna
ONE chain (single strand) of nucleotides '
joined by hydrogen bonds
3 parts of a RNA nucleotides
1) ribose sugar
2) phosphate group
3) nitrogenous base
4 different types of nitrogenous bases (RNA)
1) purines= adenine (a), guanine (g)
2) pyrimidines= uracil (U), cytosine ( c)
complementary base pairing RULE for RNA
adenine always joins to uracil (a→ u)
GUANINE always joins to CYTOSINE (g→ c)
types of RNA
messenger RNA (mRNA)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
messenger RNA
carries RNA from the DNA (nucleus) to the ribosomes (cytoplasm) to make proteins
transfer RNA (tRNA)
transfers amino acids to the ribosomes (cytoplasm) to help make proteins
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
the RNA that is part of the ribosome structure that helps make proteins
1) untwisting & unzipping DNA
enzymes called DNA helicase separate DNA strands by untwisting and unzipping
region where separation occurs= replication fork
helicases break hydrogen bonds between bases
2) complementary bases added to new strand
enzymes called DNA polymerase bond DNA strands back together again by adding complementary bases
bases are complementary to original strand
A→ T, G→C in complementary base pairing
3) results: two new strands of DNA
DNA polymerase falls off after base pairing
two new identical strands of DNA result
Called semi-conservative replication
telomeres
the tips of eukaryotic chromosomes
the enzyme telomerase adds short, repeated DNA sequences to telomeres as the chromosomes are replicated
transcription
copying instructions from DNA into an RNA molecule (DNA→ RNA)
occurs in the nucleus
whats 1
DNA
whats 2
replication
whats 3
transcription
whats 4
RNA
whats 5
translation
whats 6
proteins
promoter
a specific location on DNA that RNA polymerase binds to in order to START transcription
RNA polymerase
an enzyme that forms RNA by using DNA as the original template (DNA→ RNA)
termination sequence
a specific location on DNA that signals the END of transcription
steps of transcription
1) DNA strands unwind and separate
2) RNA Polymerase binds to a Promoter
3) Using one of the DNA strands as a template, RNA Polymerase adds complementary RNA nucleotides to make an RNA chain
4) when RNA polymerase reaches the termination Sequence, Transcription ENDS
5)RNA Polymerase releases the DNA and forms a brand new RNA strand (DNA→RNA)
translation
the process of producing protein using the Genetic Code (nucleotides (RNA) → amino acids (PROTEIN) )
occurs in the ribosomes-mRNA brings the RNA from the nucleus to the ribosome
binding site
a region on tRNA that bonds to a specific amino acid
codon
a set of 3 nucleotides (letters) on mRNA that translate into a specific amino acid (3 nucleotides= 1 codon)
anticodon
a set of 3 nucleotides on tRNA that are complementary to the codons on mRNA
steps of translation
1) ribosome (rRNA) joins tRNA and mRNA together. the mRNA codon is paired with its tRNA anticodon
2) each codon (3 nucleotides) on the mRNA is translated into an amino acid using the Genetic Code
3) the amino acids are joined to a growing polypeptide chain, producing a protein
4) when the ribosome reaches a Stop Codon, the ribosome STOPS Translating
5) the resulting polypeptide chain (protein) falls off
the genetic code
when RNA from transcription is translated into amino acids using the genetic code
start codon
AUG
stop codons
UAG, UAA, UGA
dna identification
the repeating sequences in noncoding DNA vary between individuals and thus can be used to identify an individual (3 step process)
copying dna
polymerase chain reaction: * scientists isolate the DNA and copy it using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
cutting DNA- restriction enzyme
the DNA is then cut into fragments using restriction enzymes
restriction enzymes
recognize and cut specific nucleotide sequences
sorting DNA by Size-gel electrophoresis
the fragments are separated by size using gel electrophoresis.
dna fingerprint
the resulting patterns of bands
cloning vectors
researchers use restriction enzymes to insert DNA fragments into vectors
recombinant DNA
the resulting DNA from two different organisms
the human genome project
goal was to determine the nucleotide sequence of the entire human genome and to map the location of every gene on each chromosome
bioinformatics
uses computers to catalog and analyze genomes
proteomics
studies the identities, structures, interactions, and abundances of an organism’s proteins
dna microarrays
two-dimensional arrangements of cloned genes
gene therapy
refers to treating genetic disorders by transferring normal human genes into human cells that lack them, correcting a defect in a gene