Geo Extended's Abstract

Spatial Distribution of the World’s Rainfall & Temperature Patterns

Areas of Higher Rainfall

Low-Latitude Equatorial Regions

• Wettest

• Strong solar insolation 

• Rainfall as high as 2,500mm annually (e.g., Singapore 2,200mm in 2024)

• Equator is home to the intertropical heat convergence zone adding additional uplift enhancing cloud formation & rainfall intensity

Mid-Latitude Temperate Regions 

• 23.5-55° N&S - moderate to high rainfall generated by frontal low pressure systems where cold polar & tropical air meet

• Rainfall is higher in Winter as seen in Perth receiving majority of its annual 740mm between May-November

• Summer is drier under subtropical high pressure systems

Coastal Regions

• receive higher rainfall than inland areas

• Atmospheric moisture originates from ocean evaporation carried by trade winds

• Perth receives 740mm per year

• Western-facing coastlines record totals approaching 2,500mm due to prevailing west-east atmospheric circulation

Areas of Lower Rainfall

Regions of High Pressure

• low rainfall as descending cool air warms, inhibiting condensation

• Evident in subtropical deserts where stable high pressure systems dominate

• Sahara desert receives <250mm pa

Polar Regions

• High latitudes beyond 60° N&S

• Limited solar energy reduces evaporation 

• Cold temperatures prevent condensation & cloud formation

• Antarctica is the driest continent on Earth - 166mm of rain pa

Inland Areas

• Air masses lose moisture before reaching the interior

• Karlgoorlie same lat as Perth only 600km inland receives 260mm of rain

Areas of Higher Temperature

Low Latitude Regions

• Near the equator receives direct insolation

• minimal seasonal variation 

• equatorial regions maintain warm conditions year-round

• Average temperatures exceed 25° e.g., Singapore

• High angle of incidence of the suns rays reduces amount of insolation lost through scattering & absorption

Subtropical Regions

• 23.5°-35° N&S including parts of Australia experience higher temperatures

• due to strong solar radiation, warm winds, clear skies & low humidity

• heat builds up quickly during the day 

• hot summers mild winters

Areas with Low Albedo

• e.g., dark forests absorb more solar radiation generating higher surface temperatures

• Amazon - low albedo (15%) year round average temp of 25° often reaching 40° in the dry season

Areas of Lower Temperature

Higher Latitudes

• Beyond 37° N& - The heat deficit zone

• Less insolation due to the lower angle of incidence of the suns rays

• solar energy diluted over a larger area & less intense

• Antarctica in the South Pole has an average annual temperature of -49. 

High Albedo

• Reflects large proportion of insolation rather than absorbing it

• Snow & Ice covered areas e.g., Antarctica have high albedo values (40-90%)

Higher Elevation

• Cooler due to the environmental lapse rate (how air decreases by 6.5° for every 1000 meters gained in altitude.

• Atmosphere becomes thinner & less able to retain heat energy.

• Altitude can create localised zones of lower temperature independent of latitude or albedo

• Himalayas remain collar then nearby lower altitude areas

Interrelationship between Land Cover Change & Climate Including Changes to Surface Reflectivity & the Process of Natural Carbon Sequestration

Changes in Surface Reflectivity (Albedo):

Deforestation 

• vegetation cleared for agriculture, mining, urban development.

• Forested surfaces low albedo absorbing more heat driving evapotranspiration.

• Tropical rainforests generate 50% of rainfall this way.

• When forests are cleared surface albedo increases by up to 14% reducing heat absorption & moisture return to atmosphere.

• Disrupts rainfall patterns & climate

• Deforestation in the Amazon could cut rainfall by over 20% by 2050

• Deforestation accounts for 50% of observed decline in rainfall in SW WA.

Urban Development

• Cities expand clearing natural vegetation replacing with darker urban surfaces - roads, building paved areas.

• Urban heat island effect - positive feedback loop where higher surface temps increase local warming.

• Removal of large trees compounds this effect

• Less canopy cover - less shade, lower levels of plant transpiration decreasing moisture return

• raises temperatures in urban areas relative to surrounding regions

• e.g., cities with populations >1mill experience mean temps 3° warmer than outskirts

Cryosphere

• sea ice, glaciers & ice shelves in polar regions

• snow & ice reflect up to 90% of insolation keeping surface & ocean temps low.

• rising global temps have caused losses in cryosphere coverage

• Greenland ice sheets melting at a rate 5x faster in the past 20 years than previously recorded

• As surface albedo decreases, less insolation is reflected & more is absorbed

• increasing surface & sea temperatures accelerating ice & snow loss creating a positive feedback loop - ice albedo effect.

Changes in the Process of Carbon Sequestration

• When forests are cleared, plant material decomposes or is burned - slash & burn techniques implemented in Brazil & Indonesia stored co2 is released in to the atmosphere

• Co2 traps heat enhancing the greenhouse effect creating a positive feedback loop amplifying warming.

• since 1880 this has attributed to a 1.1° rise in global mean temperatures

• Soils store approximately 1,500 gigatonnes of organic carbon globally.

• Soil disturbance through clearing & agricultural practices such as tillage releases CO2.

• degradation reduces soil’s ability to act as a carbon sink.

• Warmer temperatures further degrade soil - additional carbon loss

Discuss the Present & Project Impacts of Climate Change in One Natural & One Anthropogenic Environment

Natural Biomes - Present Impacts of Coral Bleaching:

• Rising sea temperatures place severe stress on coral reef ecosystems.

• When water warms by 1-2° corals expel symbiotic algae (zooanthellae) causing bleaching turning them white.

• Over the past 20 years up to 50% of reefs lost or damaged by bleaching.

• GBR significantly affected only 2% remain unbleached.

• Decline reduces coral cover & destroys breeding grounds for marine species.

Natural Biomes - Projected Impacts of Coral Bleaching

• Expected to continue with high confidence into the future.

• If current trends persist up to 9-% of coral reefs worldwide are threatened.

• Prolonged/frequent bleaching prevent coral from recovering leading to large scale die offs

• further loss of habitats, declining biodiversity & degradation of ecosystems.

Natural Biomes Oceans - Present Impacts of Ocean Acidification

• Acidification impacting marine ecosystems as oceans absorb 30% of anthropogenic CO2

• Since Industrial revolution ocean pH has fallen from 8.2-8.1 (26% rise in hydrogen concentration).

• as CO2 reacts with seawater, carbonate levels decline reducing ability of organisms to form shells & skeletons.

• Southern Ocean - some plankton populations have already declined.

• Acidification also lowers temperature threshold for coral bleaching weakening reef resilience & degrading marine habitats.

Natural Biome Oceans - Projected Impacts of Ocean Acidification:

• Projected to continue globally 

• As CO2 emissions rise, ocean pH & carbonate availability further decline making corals & calcifying organisms vulnerable.

• Intensifying coral bleaching, habitat loss & biodiversity decline.

Anthropogenic Biomes - Present Impacts of Sea Level Rise & Extreme Weather Events:

• Urban settlements especially low lying coastal areas experience climate change impacts

• Past 5 years - sea levels risen approximately 5mm per year causing coastline retreat, damaging homes, infrastructure & transport networks.

• Fieldwork @ Point Walter Reserve demonstrates coastal landward movement where sandbags can be seen reducing erosion & protecting infrastructure from flooding.

• Approximately 150million people live on land just 1m above sea level

• 40% resides within 100km of the coast

• less developed nations particularly vulnerable with many urban residents living in unprotected coastal slums.

Anthropogenic Biomes - Projected Impacts of Sea Level Rise & Extreme Weather Events

• Projections suggest sea levels could rise by up to 1m globally by 2100 under a high emissions scenario.

• Southern Australia projects shorelines shifting inland by over 100m with up to 12,000km of beaches at risk.

• Perth is projected to see a 30cm rise by 2050 prompting use of hard & soft engineering measure - rock wall revetments, gabion cages

• Low-lying island nations such as Kiribati, Tuvalu & the Maldives face extreme risk - some inundated & freshwater supplies contaminated by saltwater.

• Kiribati’s government purchased 2200 hectares of land in fiji for potential relocation underscoring severity of circumstances.

Discuss Two Strategies that Aim to Mitigate Global Climate Change

Sustainable Housing Design

• Reduces GHG emissions, Increases carbon sequestration e.g., White Gum Valley Sustainable Village 

• 3km from Freo, 2.2hectare medium density redevelopment built on site of a decommissioned school.

• Contain 85 homes accommodating 200 residents.

• Australia’s first residential project endorsed by One Planted Community. 

• In Australia 24% of electricity use & 12% of total carbon is attributed to residential buildings

• WGV addresses this through passive solar design, insulation & open plan homes reducing heating & cooling demand.

• Homes use rooftop solar & energy sharing microgrids to achieve low - net zero energy consumption cutting reliance on fossil fuels.

• Carbon sequestration is enhanced through native landscaping, communal garden spaces & permeable surfaces absorbing co2 restoring ecological function.

• Reduces carbon footprint & improves air quality helping limit enhanced greenhouse effect reducing heat trapped in lower atmosphere.

Renewable Energy

• Derived from naturally replenishing sources such as solar & wind - reduces ghg emissions.

• These processes produce little to no co2 compared to fossil fuels critical given energy sector generates 75% of globes ghg emissions.

• Renewables account for ¼ of electricity with adoption growing as technology improves & costs fall.

• Australia is expanding renewable capacity projecting 35% renewable energy by 2050.

• Falling tech costs accelerate uptake - wind & solar are now the cheapest form of new energy generation - 2.5million Australian households have installed rooftop solar enabling a 60% drop in solar costs since 2010.

• Energy storage becoming more accessible with lithium ion battery prices falling 60% since 2014.

Discuss Three Ways Human Activity has Adapted or may be Required to Adapt to Global Climate Change

Desalination

• Climate change places growing pressure on global water supplies as rising temperatures shift rainfall patterns & drying climate reduce availability of natural catchments.

• Governments adopting desalination as a key climate-independent adaptation strategy

• currently 16000 desalination plants across 177 countries supplying potable water to 300million+ people, global capacity growing by 7% per yea since 2010.

• Implements reverse osmosis to remove salt & impurities producing potable drinking water returning concentrated brine to the ocean.

• Essentially used in Perth - 2 major plants prove 50% of the city’s water.

• Perth Seawater desalination plant in Binningup (2006) supplies 20%

• Southern Seawater Desalination Plant in Binningup (2011) supplies 30%.

• Alkimos expected to open in 2028 producing 50billion litres annually to support expanding northern suburbs.

• Particularly important in WA as the SW has experienced a 20% decline in rainfall since the 1970s & an 80% fall in streamflow into dams over 50 years & higher evaporation due to rising temperatures making sources increasingly unreliable.

• Climate resilient water source unaffected by drought or seasonal variability reduces pressure on limited dams & aquifers avoiding need for costly new pipeline infrastructure.

• Must be paired with sustainable water management, conservation programs & demand reduction strategies to prevent overreliance.

Hard & Soft Engineering Structures Fortifying Shorelines/Foreshore Areas

• Coastal & Estuarine areas are increasingly threatened by sea level rise & extreme weather.

• Global sea levels rising by 3mm per year projected to increase by up to 1m by 2100 in Australia under high emissions scenario.

• Changes accelerate erosion endangering infrastructure, ecosystems & communities prompting implementation of hard & soft engineering strategies protecting shorelines.

• as observed on fieldwork Point Walter Reserve on the Swan River in Perth, City of Melville & Natural Area Management services (NAMS) reinforced the foreshore with two 22metre long gabion cages, one metre high filled with limestone reducing wave scouring & dune erosion. 

• East of this 5 human modified beaches using vertical limestone walls, geotextile sand filled containers & limestone revetments soften erosive forces & protect dunes.

• This stabilises the foreshore, maintain recreational areas & support local businesses such as Walter’s River Cafe, while providing immediate protection from storm surges & rising waters.

• Hard engineering structures are costly requiring 10-15years of maintenance & permanently altering foreshore morphology.

• Soft structures also need ongoing monitoring.

• Swan river sea levels are projected to rise 220-330mm by 2040 requiring adaptation implementation.

Drought Tolerant Plant Species in Agriculture

• Agriculture is vulnerable to climate change - rising temperatures, declining rainfall & extreme events (droughts & bushfires) reducing crop yields & threatening food security.

• Genetically modified & drought tolerant plant species have been developed & adopted globally - 12% of cropland planted with GM crops. 

• In 2018, wheat was genetically modified to resist severe weather & diseases improving productivity under harsh conditions.

• CSIRO & Ag dept work with farmers to develop drought tolerant varities & improve water efficiency.

• E.g., CSIRO’s wheat variety Drysdale yeilds 5% more than other wheat under dry conditions.

• @ UWA perennial legume Tedra is being trialled in the Wheatbelt, tolerating drought by maximising water uptake through its roots & reducing reducing transpiration via leaf folding thriving on at least 300mm of annual rainfall & providing high protein livestock feed during critical seasonal gaps.

• Adaptations are vital as WA’s Wheatbelt has experienced a 1° rise in winder & autumn temperatures since the 1970s, declining rainfall & variable seasonal patterns contributing to plateauing wheat yields since the 1990s.

• Drought tolerant species improve water efficiency, maintain productivity in marginal areas & ensure long-term sustainability of agriculture in the face of global climate change.

Explain Two Strategies Designed to Address the Impacts of Land Cover Change on Local &/or Regional Environments

Point Walter Reserve Rehabilitation Program

• Land cover management strategy restoring degraded foreshore of the Swan-Canning River Park in Bicton Perth.

• Ongoing since 2010 under the City of Melville in partnership with the Swan River Trust & NAMS.

• Addresses soil erosion, vegetation loss, biodiversity decline & invasive species that had weakened the ecological, social & economic functions of the area.

• Actions include - hard & soft engineering structures, large scale revegetation, public education initiatives.

• Erosion caused by wind, waves & human activity is mitigated through gabion cages, limestone revetments, walls & geotextile structures, planting of sedges & rushes stabilises soil via root networks maintaining bank stability & supporting ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling & carbon storage.

• To combat habitat & biodiversity loss, over 50,000 native tube stock (sedges, rushes & trees) have been planted, supporting more than 100 bird species including the ecological significant fairy tern.

• Combing structural protection with ecological restoration strengthens habitat diversity, ecological resilience & long term sustainability of the Swan-Canning River Park.

Gondwana Link

• Large scale land cover restoration program in Western Australia’s SW - internationally recognised biodiversity hotspot. 

• Launched in 2002 it aims to reconnect fragmented ecosystems by creating a continuous 1000km band of native vegetation from Karri forests to Mallee woodlands.

• Region has been heavily cleared - up to 2/3 deforested since European Settlement, 90% of the Wheatbelt losing native cover.

• Gondwana link addresses land cover change impact - habitat & biodiversity loss, soil degradation & disrupted ecosystem services through large scale revegetation, land rehabilitation, conservation partnerships & indigenous engagement. 

• Repurchasing & rehabilitation of degraded land reconnects remnant bushland to form wildlife corridors e.g., Greening Australia restored 2,5000ha of cleared land protecting 9,600 ha of remnant habitat increasing refuge for threatened & endemic species supporting ecological processes like pollination & seed dispersal.

• Program restores ecosystem services improving soil fertility, nutrient cycling, water regulation, carbon storage & climate regulation. 

• Vegetation such as jarrah trees supports pollinators & honey production, cools the landscape, provides canopy cover & boosts rainfall of setting a 50% reduction in rainfall linked to deforestation. 

• Cultural services strengthened through collaboration with farmers, conservationists, students & indigenous groups promoting land stewardship, knowledge sharing & community engagement.

Evaluate Two Strategies Designed to Address Impacts of Land Cover Change Using Sustainability

Point Walter Reserve

Economic

• investment of $1.3million funding large-scale engineering works, revegetation & ongoing management (labour intensive structures - gabion cages requiring replacement every 10-15 years)

• Costs offset by economic benefits - revitalised foreshore attracts visitors, supports businesses (point water cafe), generates revenue from wedding site booking (up to $300) & creates jobs through contracting NAMS.

Socially

• Infrastructure improvements - decks, seating, disability ramps & pathways enhance accessibility, protect dunes & promote inclusive recreational use.

• Signage recognising ecological, cultural & historical values (noongar heritage) fosters community awareness & stewardship.

Environmentally

• Mitigates erosion & biodiversity loss through hard engineering solutions (limestone revetments & gabion cages) alongside soft engineering (50,000 native tube stock) for revegetation.

• Stabilise soil, restore habitat & reinforce ecosystem services (nutrient cycling, carbon storage & habitat provision) ensuring long term environmental resilience.

Gondwana Link

Economic

• Since 2002 -n over $35million has been raised 70% from private donations supporting conservation & reforestation initiatives.

• Employment of Greening Australia & Bush Heritage, commercial partnerships in carbon markets, skill-building via volunteer & student involvement.

Social 

• Collaboration with private landholders, communities & indigenous noongar groups.

• Programs like the Noongar ranger program restore cultural connections & stewardship, while community & school engagement enhances environmental awareness & cohesion.

Environmental

• 13,500ha of native vegetation has been restored

• 16,000ha of remnant bushland protected reconnecting fragmented ecosystems to support species such as pygmy possums & black cockatoos.

• Reforestation & revegetation restore ecosystem services - pollination, nutrient cycling, soil stabilisation & water regulation improving infiltration & stabilising soils to reduce salinity.

Describe the Historical, Cultural & Environmental Factors Contributing to the Spatial Distribution of Urban & Rural Places in Australia

Historical Factors

• Colonisation in the late 1700s & early 1800s established key coastal cities for access to freshwater, rivers & deep harbours.

• These settlements became major ports & trade hubs anchoring population growth along the coast.

• Rise of commercial agriculture during the industrial Revolution encouraged settlement near capitals where fertile land & port access enabled exporting activities e.g., swan valley.

• Gold rushed 19th century Vic, NSW & WA spurred regional population booms

• Pastoral expansion pushed limited inland settlement due to harsh conditions

• Post federation 1902 cities consolidated reinforcing Aus’s centralised coastal population pattern.

Cultural Factors

• Over 90% of Australians live in cities drawn by centripetal factors - employment, education, healthcare & recreation.

• Migrants settle in major cities contributing to multicultural growth.

• British migrants prefer coastal suburbs - Rockingham & Mindarie in Perth.

• Strong cultural preference for coastal & outdoor lifestyles reinforces settlement along the Eastern seaboard & SW WA, creating linear patterns - Perth to Bursledon Corridor & promoting sea-change downs like Margaret river while tourism & lifestyle industries support growth in smaller urban places like Dunsborough

Environmental Factors

• Most decisive influence

• Most of the population is concentrated along the coast, moderate climate, fertile soils & reliable rainfall support agriculture  urban growth.

• Coastal lowlands like the Swan Coastal Plain in Perth provide flat, fertile land where inland areas remain sparsely populated due to arid conditions, poor soils & limited water.

• Rivers (Murray darling basin) supports denser rural populations.

• Climate shapes farming in drier areas - WA Wheatbelts resulting in dispersed populations.

• Natural resources further shape settlement, Kalgoorlie developing in remote regions to support mining.

Changing Demographic Characteristics

Age

• Aging rural & urban populations at different rates

• In cities median age rose form 36 in 2018 to 37 in 2022 reflecting higher living standards/better healthcare.

• Urban pop remain relatively young 38% aged 20-44 compared to 30% in the rest of Australia - young professionals, students & migrants drawn to cities by employment, education & lifestyle opportunities.

• Rural areas aging faster, median age rising from 41-42 2018-2022 - youth outmigration & retirees seeking ‘tree change’ or ‘sea change’ lifestyles in towns like Dunsborough.

Gender

• Urban populations have higher proportion of females.

• 2022 sex ratio in capital cities was 98.2 males per 100 females reflecting long term settlement of women attracted to urban centres for safety, socio-cultural opportunities & employment.

• Women have higher life expectancy (85y compared to 81y 4 m) increasing long-term presence in urban areas.

• Rural & Regional places have a higher proportion of males.

• 2022 sex ration outside capital cities was 100m to 99.2 females reflecting male dominated workforce (agriculture, mining & construction)

• Mining towns like Newman & Kalgoorlie demonstrate skewed gender distribution.

Socioeconomic Status

• Urban population generally have higher incomes, education & professional employment.

• Perth - median weekly income is $859 v $701 in WA Central Wheatbelt. 

• Perth - 24% hold tertiary qualifications compared to 9% in the Wheatbelt.

• Urban employment is concentrated in tertiary & quaternary industries - health, education & research.

• Rural populations have lower incomes, education & labour force participation (55% in the Wheatbelt compared to 65% in Perth) work longer hours with 32% exceeding 45hours weekly compared to 21% in Perth. 

• Rural economic remain reliant on agriculture, mining & tourism.

Cultural Distributions

• Cultural characteristics in Australia are shifting with urban areas becoming increasingly multicultural while rural areas remain less diverse. 

• In Perth 40% of residents born overseas mainly from England, NZ, India & SA.

• Skilled migrants (over 70% of Australia’s 2024/2025 migration intake) are drawn to cities by employment & established networks, reinforced through chain migration.

• Rural areas have lower diversity though regional migration programs & seasonal work can temporarily increase it - Manjimup seen short-stay migrants from Tonga for fruit picking. 

• Indigenous Australians make up a larger proportion of rural & remote populations.

Describe the Site, Situation, Internal & External Morphology of Perth

Site:

• Defined by physical landscape - drainage, soils & vegetation.

• Most of the city lies on swan coastal plain (flat to gently undulating, stable & well drained, elevations of 0-80mabove sea level)

• Swan Canning River system bisects the plain, alluvial soils along its banks, while surrounding areas have sandy coastal soils.

• Swamps & wetlands drained for urban development

• Bunded to the East by the Darling Escarpment rising 300m asl featuring fast flowing streams, lateritic soils, granite outcrops & limited suburban development.

• Vegetation - Banksia Woodland in the Northern Coastal Plain, Tuart Woodland in the South & Jarrah dominated forest on the escarpment.

• Perth’s flat, well drained plains with water access & fertile soil support urban growth, steep escarpment & rock soils restrict development in the east.

Situation:

• Perth is located on the Southwest coast of WA, CBD positioned at approximately 31°05’S latitude & 115°51’E longitude.

• CBD acts as a central node converging major transport routes - Great Eastern HW, Albany HW & Kwinana FW facilitating movement.

• Most isolated cities in the world 2,700km west of Adelaide & 180km North of Bunbury, closer to Singapore than Canberra.

• Position on the coast & along major transport links influenced its growth, accessibility & regional significance despite geographical isolation.

External Morphology:

• city is semi stellate, gradually becoming rectangular, covering 1,600km2.

• Stretches 120km north-south along the Coast from Yanchep in the North & Singleton in the South.

• Majority of development on the Swan Coastal plain 30km inland bounded by the Darling Escarpment.

• Urban centres on the Swan Canning River with four major corridors extending North to Joondalup, east to midland, south east to Armadale & South to Rockingham & a fifth emerging North-East toward Ellenbrook.

• Minor development occurs on escarpment suburbs - royelstone, kalamunda & lesmurdie.

Internal Morphology

Layout of land uses & urban function within a city, Perth’s internal arrangement of land use patterns is characterised by eight major functional zones.

Central Business District

• Located on the Northern Banks of the Swan River 17km upstream

• Cities commercial, administrative & residential hub.

• Features compact, dynamic grid layout with streets such as st Georges Tc & Hay street

• Highly accessible - CBD connects via seven train lines including the Airport & Mandurah line.

Inner Mixed Zone

• Older inner city suburbs fringing the CBD - East Perth, Northbridge & West Perth, originally early residential areas

• transitional zone with semi-intensive, heterogenous mix of land uses, including warehouses, factories, restaurants, offices, apartments & transport terminals.

• High accessibility & channels commuter traffic to the CBD though congestion is common e.g., Thomas Street in West Perth.

Established Residential Zone

• Older inner & middle suburbs beyond CB - Cottesloe, Dalkeith, Peppermint Grove.

• Largest most space extensive functional zone, dominated by housing with a dormitory function.

• Infrastructure is well developed including schools, shopping centres, health services etc

Newer Growth Zone

• Includes recently developed suburbs beyond the Established Residential Zone often near the rural-urban fringe e.g., Baldivis, Ellenbrook & Treeby.

• Dominated by modern, off the block plan housing often homogenous, average block size of 400m2 & low density attracting younger families - affordability.

• Streets & gardens less established, tree canopy cover as low as 5%.

Outer Business District

• Operate outside the CBD dispersed along major transport routes - Albany HW.

• Diverse commercial & retail activities ranging from small clusters of shops or shopping plazas to large suburban shopping complexes reflecting a hierarchy of OBDs.

• Highly accessible due to proximity to main roads, highways & public transport

• Claremont Quarter is an example, smaller well serviced OBD catering to retail & commercial needs.

Industrial Zone

• Space extensive area dispersed through metropolitan region classified as light, medium or heavy industry.

• Heavy industry is capital intensive, produces large or refined goods - oil & alumina & located further from cbd.

• e.g., Kwinana 40km south of Perth.

• Light industry less capital intensive, consumer oriented, involving small scale manufacturing - timber, tiles, or plumbing supplies.

Special Purpose Zone

• Area that cannot be classified in to standard land use functions & are unevenly distributed across the city.

• often one of a kind & space extensive serving specific functions such as education facilities, prisons, airports & hospital such as Perth Children’s Hospital or Perth Airport.

Rural Urban Fringe

• Transitional zone on the city’s outer edge between built up areas & rural countryside.

• Contains mixture of land uses with no dominant function including intensive agriculture - market gardens in Wanneroo & Byford, vineyards & Wineries in the Swan Valley.

• Residential development is expanding through invasions & succession with new housing estates invading rural land.

Explain the Demographics Characteristics of Perth

Demographics

• Characteristics of a population - age, gender, cultural distribution of ethnicity & socioeconomic status measured by indicators based on income, occupation, home ownership & education,

• valuable to urban planners & government agencies informing strategies for managing city growth & addressing specific needs of population.

Age

• aging 2020 census median age of 37

• 19% aged 0-14, 16% 65+

• Older inner suburbs in the ERZ higher median age due to greater housing costs, land use competition & prevalence of professionally & financially established residents,

• e.g., Dalkeith’s median age is 45, 22,3% aged 65+ compared to Perths 37. 

• Outer suburbs in the NGZ have younger populations, higher proportions of children & more affordable housing attracting younger families. 

• Baldivis’ median age of 31 26.9% aged 0-14.

Gender

• slightly female weighted 50.6% female, 49.4%male)

• central areas like west Perth, north bridge & north perth have more males - northbridge population is 55.9% male due to younger professionals favouring apartments near work, transport & entertainment , though women face greater safety concerns here,

• Older established inner suburbs (Claremont, Dalkeith) both 53.2% female have more women influenced by perceived safety, presence of girls schools & women’s higher life expectancy leave older women in place after partner death

• more balances in outer NGZ suburbs

Cultural Distribution of Ethnicity

• Highly multicultural 40.5% of residents born overseas.

• England, NZ, India.

• Indigenous people make up 2% of the population.

• IMZ includes residents from 50 nations & international students from Asia live near universities like UWA, Curtin & ECU.

• Ethnic clustering occurs when groups settle together for cultural familiarity, security & community creating areas with culturally specific shops, restaurants, religious institutions & traditional events. 

• e.g., UK born residents cluster in Joondalup, Mindarie & Currambine drawn by coastal lifestyle

Socioeconomic Status

• Reflective of income, housing, education & employment.

• Median household income is $1,865 rising to $4,672 in Western suburbs like Dalkeith.

• 30% in education, 54% hold tertiary qualification 

• Employment is 58.6% fulltime, 32.5% part-time 5.1% unemployed, top occupations being professionals (24%), technicians & trades (14.5%), & clerical/admin (12.5%.

• 2021 - 41.9% of dwellings were mortgaged, 28.5% owned outright & 26.6% rented

• ERZ suburbs have more outright owners Dalkeith (55%) while NGZ areas like Baldivis have more mortgages (59.3%) due to younger, often singe income households.

• Rentals concentrated in higher - density areas such as central Perth, Subiaco & Scarborough.

Explain the Scop & Causes of One Urban Challenge (WATER SUPPLY) & the Impacts for the Place

Definition:

• When the amount of potable water available is less than the amount required to sustain current use leading to a water shortage.

Scope

• intensified by population growth & climate change

• Managed by the WC through integrated water supply scheme providing over 2mill people across Perth, the Goldfields, farming regions & parts of the SW with 309b litres of water annually.

• Historically reliant on dams, increasingly dependent on desalinated water, groundwater & groundwater replenishment as declining streamflow & a projected 15% decrease in winter rainfall by 2030 reduce dam reliability.

• Groundwater accounts for up to 70% of urban use, many households accessing bores up to 20m deep.

• Despite a 20% reduction in per capita water since 2001, daily consumption remains high at 250-300litres per person making Perth one of Australia’s highest water consuming cities.

• Population expected to reach 3.5million by 2050, water infrastructure demands required to double necessitating expanded desalination

Causes

• driven by climate change & rapid population growth straining supply & demand

• Climate change altered weather patterns 20% decline in annual rainfall since the 1970s & an 80% reduction in streamflow into dams, av temps increased by 1.4° since 1910 increasing evaporation & reducing stored water reliability.

• Traditional surface water sources increasingly unreliable, necessitating reliance on groundwater & desalination.

• Perths Population is projected to reach 3.5million by 2050 increasing demand by an estimated 238billion litres annually equivalent to five additional desalination plants.

• Urban sprawl & low-density housing exacerbate the issue, roughly 75% live in detached homes leading to high outdoor water use via lawns, gardens & irrigation.

• Despite a 20% reduction in Per capita consumption since 2001 daily use remains high at 250-200litres per person.

Impacts

• Environmentally over extraction of groundwater lowers aquifer levels by around 3.5m since 1979, resulting in the loss of 100 gigalitres, degradation of wetlands such as perry lakes, habitat loss for species & stress on Banksia woodlands & native trees valued at $100million while desalination projects contribute to land clearing & brine discharge.

• Economically, challenge imposes rising household costs with tiered water pricing of $1.82-$4.55per kilolitre & bills expected to rise up to 50% in the next decade while desalination projects require significant government investment through they generate jobs & stimulate the WA economy.

• Socially residents must adapt to water restrictions affecting household aesthetics.

Explain Two Planning Strategies used to Address an Urban Challenge (Water Supply)

Desalination:

• Key adaptation strategy adopted by the WA government to secure Perth’s water supply amid declining & reduced dam inflows from climate change.

• Reverse osmosis, seawater is pressurised through fine membranes to remove salt, bacteria & other impurities producing potable water while returning concentrated brine to the ocean.

• Perth operates 2 desal plants - Perth Seawater Desalination Plant Kwinana (2006) 20% of Perth’s Water & the Southern Seawater Desalination Plant in Binningup 2011 providing 30% meeting half of Perth’s Demand powered by renewable energy sources such as wind & solar.

• Third facility in alkimos under construction expected to deliver 100b litres annually by 2028.

Water Recycling

• Central strategy in Perth's water planning reducing reliance on rainfall & groundwater creating a sustainable, climate resilient supply.

• WC treats over 460million litres of wastewater daily.

• Kwinana Reclamation plant (2004) supplies high quality recycled water to local industries easing demand.

• Advanced treatment ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis & UV disinfection ensures water safety before reinjection.

Evaluate 2 Planning Strategies used to address an urban challenge WATER SUPPLY using the concept of sustainability

Desalination

Environmentally:

• reduces pressure on ecosystems such as wetlands, & bushland protecting biodiversity including Carnaby cockatoo while groundwater replenishment sustains regional habitats.

• energy intensive producing brine discharge though the WC is transitioning to 100% renewable power by 2035 using constant monitoring & engineered outflow systems to mitigate risks.

Economically

• Perth’s first plant cost $387mill adding $44 annually to household bills but boosts employment, supports industry growth & secures supply to prevent severe price shocks.

Socially

• Widely accepted with plants sited away from residential areas (e.g., alkimos sand dune buffer) to minimise disruption & safeguard natural & cultural assets. 

Water Recycling

Environmentally: 

• Reduces pressure on finite surface & groundwater supplies preventing pollutants from entering fragile ecosystems 

• Beenyup Advanced Water Recylcing Plant recharge up to 14b litres annually into deep aquifers with Perth’s sandy soils providing natural filtration.

Economically:

• Creates cost effective resource reducing the need for expensive new supplies avoiding environmental remediation.

Socially:

• enhances resilience by securing safe, rainfall-independent supply, supported through public engagement under the Water Forever plan & minimises odour & land use conflicts through careful siting.

Explain the Demographic Characteristics of a Megacity

Age

• Median age of 38 reflecting an aging population

• 20% of resident under 18

• 16% over 65

• Manhattan has highest share of working aged adults (48% aged 15-44) professionals, singles & dual income households are drawn to its jobs & lifestyle

• Bronx & Brooklyn have younger populations, with more residents under 18 (23%) linked to larger families & lower housing costs in less affluent areas.

• Queens & Staten island older both with median ages of 40 & higher proportions over 65 appealing to families & retirees.

• Median age projected to reach 40 by 2050

Gender

• Females slightly outnumber males (52% to 48%) largely due to higher female life expectancy

• Males dominate younger cohorts (0-19), women outnumber men from 20yo onwards.

• Borough differences reflect socioeconomic & neighbourhood structures.

• Manhattan & Brooklyn have more women in older & single person households, while the Bronx shows higher female populations linked to public housing & social services.

• Financial district have more men due to male dominated industries.

Socioeconomic

• Manhattan & parts of Brooklyn are the wealthiest with high land values, elite housing & jobs in finance, real-estate & tech.

• 2020 - Manhattan household median weekly income of $2485 with 63% holding a bachelors degree or higher.

• 2023 Hudson yards & Tribeca had median housing price of $3.9m.

• Bronx & parts of East Harlem face entrenched poverty, UE & crime 48% of Bronx neighbourhoods persistently in poverty.

Cultural Distribution

• 40% of residents are foreign born & over 200 languages are spoken

• population reflects migration from the Caribbean, Latin America, Europe & Asia creating a cultural melting pot.

• Whit (31%) Hispanic (28%) African American (20%) & Asian (16%).

• Formed cultural enclaves such as Chinatown & little Italy in Manhattan, Brighton Beach in Brooklyn & Astoria & Flushing in Queens.

• Queens is the most diverse Burrough with almost half of its residents born overseas while Staten island is the least diverse with a majority white population.

Scope Causes & Impacts of a Challenge TRANSPORTATION For a Mega City

Transportation Definition

Movements of people & goods from one place to another & the various means by which each movement is accomplished.

Scope

• Large & city wide impacting all five boroughs due to the mismatch between infrastructure & demand

• Longest average commute time in the US at 40m

• New Yorkers face crowded, unreliable & lengthy journeys to & from work

• Scale of the system highlights the extend of the issue: Subway 60% underground operates 36lines & carried 760m riders in 2021 while buses transported 312m passengers.

• More than 50% of residents do not own a car meaning there is heavy reliance on public transport although 22% of commuters drive along contributing to congestion.

Causes

• Aging, overburdened infrastructure, heavy reliance on delivery vehicles & rapid population growth.

• Much of the transit network was built over a centaury ago - subway opened in 1904 with most lines completed prior to 1930, designed for 150,000 annual passengers but now carries over 1b pa.

• only 65% of weekday trains on time in 2021.

• Manhattan focused design leaves areas like Staten island poorly connected while many station remain dilapidated.

• 30,500km of roads are deteriorating - 30% in poor condition & 43% substandard in Manhattan - of 162 bridges 1/10 over 100 yo & structurally unsound.

• Congestion furthered by commercial & delivery vehicles which move 90% of NYCs freight

• Manhattan over 125000 trucks enter daily, 80% of deliveries occurring during peak hours (7am-7pm)

• Ecommerce growth increased residential deliveries by 30% in 5 years 41% of NYCers receiving truck deliveries more than once a week.

• Freight projected to rise 69% by 2045

• Population growth adds strain NCYs 8.5m residents may grow by another 1m by 2030 driving private vehicle ownership.

• Manhattan bound traffic expected to rise 20% in the next 25 years.

Impacts

• Environmentally, congestion contributed to emissions, vehicles produce up to 20% of the city’s total GHG emissions, traffic in lower Manhattan generates 1m tons of CO2 annually. PM2.5 pose health risks, 17% of these particulate emissions directly linked to vehicle traffic.

• Socially, congestion & poor infrastructure affect mental & physical health causing stress, anxiety, road rage, frequent minor accidents involving cars, bikes & scooters highlight safety issues, traffic related emissions contribute to respiratory illness accounting for 17% of asthma cases among children aged 4-5 in the Bronx.

• Economically, decades of underinvestment in the subways 70 years without major upgrades force nyc into costly short term repairs, congestion costs roughly A$30b annually in lost productivity & revenue, individual Manhattan commuters spend extra A$30000 per year on fuel & delays

Explain 2 Planning Strategies used to Address an Urban Challenge TRANSPORTATION

Select Bus Service

• Strategic planning initiative under New York City’s OneNYC 2050 framework aimed at addressing the city’s transportation challenges by improving efficiency, reliability & sustainability.

• Launched in 2008, operating on exclusive lanes & serve high ridership routes primarily in Manhattan, network expanded to 20 lines across all 5 Burroughs.

• Incorporates features that reduce travel time - 3-door entry point, pre-boarding ticket collection stations, widely spaced stops, resulting in 20% faster travel times.

• 62km of sbs lanes have been installed saving commuters 8m hours of travel time.

• reduces car reliance, enhances mobility

Urban freight initiatives

• strategic planning approach by NCY Dept of Transportation reducing congestion & improving efficiency of freight movement.

• Off-Hour delivery program, voluntary & incentivised initiative encouraging business in congested areas e.g., Lower & Midtown Manhattan shift deliveries to off-peak hours between 7pm & 6am, offering annual incentives of $1000-$4000per business.

• Since its launch in 2010 over 900 businesses including have participated resulting in less congested streets increased productivity for carrier (fedex & freightcentre) shifting up to 50 daily delivery routes saving over A$4m pa

• Aims to move 62000 trucks to off-peak hours by 2040 reducing Manhattan congestion by 6% if 10% freight receivers participate

• UFI promotes environmental sustainability encouraging use of elective trucks or vehicles using cleaner fuels reducing emissions of idling trucks that contribute $900m annual economic costs of congestion

Evaluate 2 Stratergies for one challenge in a megacity

Urban Freight Initiatives

• Environmentally, shifts deliveries to off-peak hours reducing idling & stop-and-go traffic, cutting emissions by an estimated 67% by 2040 & supporting the citys goal of an 80% reduction in GHG emissions by 2050. helps curb pollutants such as PM2.5 mitigating emissions in high traffic areas like Manhattan where car & truck traffic produce around 1m tons of cO2 pa.

• Socially, UFI improves safety, accessibility & reduces daytime truck congestion lowering conflicts with pedestrians & cyclists, supporting NYCs vision zero initiative. Fewer trucks reduce noise pollution in residential neighbourhoods enhancing quality of life in dense districts

• Economically, UFI boosts efficiency & reduces operating costs, businesses save up to $9000 annually per delivery tour from avoided parking fines, while off peak deliveries increase speed by 50 to 130% in Manhattan lowing labour & fuel costs.

SBS Buses

• Environmentally, reduces emissions improving air quality, private vehicles produce up to 20% of NYC’s GHG emissions & 17% of PM2.5, each sbs bus carries over 80 passengers removing 50 cars from the road. Reduces congestion, lowers CO2 output & helps city progress toward 80% cut in GHG emissions by 2050.

• Socially, enhances safety, accessibility & equity, since its launch in 2008, the service has contributed to a 22% reduction in bus related facilities, reduces commuter stress through relibale service & provided an affordable US$2.75 fare benefiting lower income residents

• Economically, SBS offers cost effective improvement to transit, each route costs AU$15m to implement, cheaper & faster than subway expansion reducing travel times by 15-30%, boosting productivity, improving accessibility to jobs & services.