2016PSY FINAL (copy)

GUGC

Eysenck’s Big Three

* Extraversion/Introversion
* Neuroticism/Stability
* Psychoticism

Galens 4 Personality Types

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* Sanguine
* Melancholic
* Phlegmatic
* Choleric

(stems back to the Ancient Greeks who had a theory of personality)

Sanguine

(blood) cheerful and compassionate type of person

Melancholic

(black bile) gloomy and pessimistic type of person

Phlegmatic

(phlegm) laid-back, calm, and unexcitable type of person

Choleric

(yellow bile) bad tempered and irritable type of person

William Sheldon’s Body Somatypes (1940)

* Ectomorph
* Mesomorph
* Endomorph

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physical attributes aligned with type of personality/personality traits

Ectomorph

* thin, tall, and lightly muscled
* introverted, intelligent, and socially anxious

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Mesomorph

* hard and muscular body
* assertive, bold, and adventurous (later linked with criminality)

Endomorph

* underdeveloped muscles and round shape
* sociable, good humored, and relaxed

Phineas Gage

* in 1848, while working on the railroad tracks in Vermont, a 3.5 iron rod impaled him in the head
* the rod entered the skull below his left eye into the frontal lobes and came out the top of his head
* survived a seemingly unsurvivable injury
* his stunning recovery helped settled some debates on how the brain works
* lost 11% of his white matter, specifically connecting to the orbitofrontal cortex of the frontal lobe in the limbic system
* lost 4% of his gray matter

Left Frontal Lobe

* associated with decision making and emotional processing/stability
* more active when a person wants to approach something pleasant
* activity is associated with the ability to inhabit responses to unpleasant stimuli, so the left cortex may be able to promote good feelings and dampen bad ones
* propensity to get angry

White Matter

* brain tissue that appears to be white, is made of myelinated axons that connects neurons
* possible to regenerate after injury

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Gray Matter

* mostly made up of neuron cell bodies
* does not grow back well after injury

Neuron (nerve cell)

* a cell of the nervous system that receives and transmits information
* dendrites, axons, and interneurons

Dendrites

projections that receive stimulation

Axons

pass the message on

Interneurons

* have short axons or none at all
* organize and regulate transmissions between nerve cells

Hypothalamus

* a complex structure near the lower centre of the brain that has direct connections to many other parts of the brain
* involved in the production of psychologically important hormones
* important for mood and motivation

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Thalamus

regulates arousal

Hormone

a biological chemical that affects parts of the body some distance from where it is produced

Amygdala

* a small structure located near the base of the brain
* plays a role in emotion
* aggression, fear, and anger (negative emotions)
* social attraction and sexual responsiveness (positive emotions)
* links perceptions and thoughts with their emotional meanings
* people with anxiety disorders tend to have an active amygdala all the time, even at rest
* the **insula** and **anterior cingulate** (located deep within the middle of the brain) are two related structures

Hippocampus

* a complex structure deep within the brain, behind the hypothalamus
* plays an important role in memory processes

Cortex (Cerebral Cortex)

* the outside portion of an organ
* in the brain cortex refers to the outer layers of the brain

Neocortex

* the outermost layer of the cortex of the brain
* regarded as uniquely human
* most distinctive
* important for higher cognitive functions such as speech, planning and interpreting the world
* it is scrunched around the rest of the brain in a way that explains its wrinkled appearance, but spread out flat it would be the size of a newspaper

Frontal Cortex

* the frontal part of the cortex of the brain
* divided left and right into the two frontal lobes
* associated with cognitive functioning and motor control such as planning, foresight, understanding, reality interpretation, and aspects of emotional experience (empathy and reasoning)

Corpus Callosum

the thick bundle of nerve fibers connecting the right and left halves of the brain

Cingulate

runs from the front to the back of the brain in the middle, just above the corpus callosum

Anterior Cingulate

important for the experience of normal emotion and self-control

Three Main Methods for Learning How the Brain Works

* the study of brain damage
* experiments using brain stimulation
* brain imaging (newest technique)

Brain Damage

* the oldest source of knowledge about the human brain comes from observations of people who suffered head injuries/traumas to the head
* psychologists are able to draw conclusions by keeping track of specific problems caused by damage to different parts


* sometimes, researchers damage brains deliberately

Chimp Big Five

* reactivity
* dominance
* openness
* extraversion
* agreeableness

other traits: friendliness, aggression, and social skill

The Big Five

* extraversion
* agreeableness
* openness
* conscientiousness
* neuroticism

largely developed in the USA

Brain Stimulation

* stimulates parts of the brain directly with electrodes


* difficult and rare approach to study the brain
* can also treat migraines, effects of stroke, hallucinations, and depression

Transactional Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

* uses rapidly changing magnetic fields to temporarily “knock out”/turn off brain activity
* creates a “virtual lesion” by cutting off part of the brain without physically having to cut anything, and thereby se whether that part is essential for psychological task

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDSC)

uses constant, low direct current delivered via electrodes on the head

Brain Activity and Imaging

* EEG
* MEG
* CT
* PET
* fMRI
* Perfusion Imaging

EEG (Electroencephalography)

electrodes are placed on the scalp to pick up electrical signals generated by the brain activity underneath

MEG (Magnetoencephalography)

uses delicate sensors to detect magnetic (as opposed to electrical) indications of brain activity

Computed Tomography (CT)/Tomographs

representations of very thin slices of the brain (ex. X-Ray)

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

creates a map of brain activity by following the location of a harmless radioactive tracer injected into the bloodstream

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

monitors magnetic pulses generated by oxygen in the blood to map where the brain is most active at a given moment

Perfusion Imaging

uses arterial spin labeling, appears to yield more precise measures of blood flow in the brain than blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signals, but relies on the same experimental logic

Right Frontal Lobe

* activity is associated with wanting to withdraw from something unpleasant or frightening
* associated with the Big Five trait of neuroticism (except for propensity to get angry)

The Case of Elliot

* he began to report headaches and the inability to concentrate
* had a large brain tumor above the nasal cavities at the midline of the brain
* the surgery to remove the tumor also removed a good deal of his cerebral cortex
* he became peculiarly unemotional (like Gage) and did not seem to experience strong positive or negative emotions
* damage to tissue in the right frontal lobes impaired ability to use emotional reactions in decision making
* somatic marker hypothesis

Somatic Marker Hypotheis

emotions enable people to make decisions that maximize good outcomes and minimize bad ones, and to focus on what is really important (developed by neuroscientist Antonio Damasio)

Cognition and Emotion

* cognition and emotion are inextricably intertwined
* when they both become detached, the consequences can be severe

Capgras Syndrome

* capgras cases involve injury to the frontal lobe, which a large amount of evidence indicates is particularly important in positive emotional response
* many of these cases involve the patiences believing their loved ones have been replaced by identical doubles, have disappeared, or have been assassinated

Questions Commonly Asked When Observing Introversion/Extraversion

* Do you like mixing with people?
* Do you like plenty of bustle and excitement?
* Are you rather lively?

Questions Commonly Asked When Observing Neuroticism/Stability

* Do you often feel fed up?
* Do you often feel lonely?
* Does your mood often go up and down?

Questions Commonly Asked When Observing Psychoticism

* Do good manners and cleanliness matter much to you?
* Does it worry you if there are mistakes in your work?
* Do you like taking risks for fun?

Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS)

* “older” part of the brain; part of brain stem
* connects cerebral cortex with rest of brain
* regulates arousal (damage can lead to permanent sleep); critical to our everyday lives
* Eysenck linked ARAS to extraversion/introversion
* Lemon Juice Test

Lemon Juice Test

* introverts respond more strongly to lemon juice


* introverts need less stimulation than extraverts

Stimulation

* threshold for arousal (ex. stimulation of ARAS) lower in low E than high E individuals
* cortical arousal higher in introverts than extroverts
* introverts are less likely to seek out new experiences and people

Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (1970)

* largely developed in the UK
* rethinking of Eysenck’s model
* proposed individual differences in sensitivity to reward and punishment
* combination of biological, learning, and behavioral theory (captures a lot of different ways to understand behaviors)
* began in the study of anxiety in rats
* increasingly used in the study of psychopathology and other applied areas

Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (Pre 2000)

Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory originally consisted of two systems:


1. Behavioral Approach System-BAS (reward sensitivity)
2. Behavioral Inhibition System-BIS (punishment sensitivity)

* Gray argued that the primary personality systems were these systems, not Eysenck’s dimensions
* proposed that Eysenck’s dimensions needed to be rotated (initially 45 degrees and later 30 degrees)
* Gray mapped his dimensions on to Eysenck traits
* explain differences in an organism's attention to environmental rewards and punishments and in this way shape personality

Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (Post 2000)

* updates in 2000
* 3 biologically-derived motivational systems


1. **Behavioral Approach System (BAS):** sensitivity to rewarding stimuli
2. **Fight/Flight/Freeze System:** sensitivity to threat
3. **Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS):** sensitivity to goal conflict

Behavioral Approach System (BAS)

* reward sensitivity
* sensitive to conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
* pursuit of positive goals (“attractions”)
* incentive motivation vs pleasure experience
* Gullo and Dawe (2008) “strong engine”; “go for it system”
* dopamine (neurological bias)-opioid system
* linked with dopamine reactivity
* individual differences in system reactivity
* subgoal scaffolding (Corr, 2008)


* the BAS provides motivation to pursue the goal

Behavioral Approach System (BAS): 4 Subsystems Proposed by Corr

1. Reward Interest
2. Goal-Drive Persistence
3. Reward Activity
4. Impulsivity

Reward Interest

the tendency to notice and seek rewarding situations or activities

Goal-Drive Persistence

to put in continued effort and persistence to attain the reward

Reward Activity

to respond positively to attained rewards

Impulsivity

to engage in risky or unplanned behaviors

Subgoal Scaffolding (Corr, 2008)

a.) identifying the appropriate goal

b.) planning behavior

c.) executing the plan

Peri Personal Space

* the space around us within an arm’s reach
* when you look down
* (typically things you own and control; use them, enjoy them, sometimes consume them)
* “here and now” brain chemicals

Extra Personal Space

* the space/world outside our arm’s reach
* when you look up
* (takes effort to get things; walking the store to buy something, planning a trip)
* interacting with things in the extra personal spaces takes place in the future because those things aren’t here (they are imaginary, unreal, abstract ideas)
* thoughts coordination by dopamine (the chemical of what you desire)

Reward Prediction Error

the difference between expected reward and actual reward

Dopamine

* brain chemical of desire and motivation
* \

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Reward Pathway

the pathway that dopamine cells take through the brain

Pleasure Molecule

dopamine is often referred to as this chemical

Stability Traits

* emotional stability (inverse of neuroticism)
* agreeableness
* conscientiousness

Serotonin

Plasticity Traits

* extroversion
* openness

Dopamine

What is the Main Strength of the Big Five Approach?

there are very well-developed and robust measures

What is a Limitation of the Big Five Approach?

it does not say why a person is extroverted or agreeable; only just looking at “causal” basis (descriptive)

What is the Advantage of Biological Approaches to Personality?

it seeks to understand the underlying mechanisms that drive behavior; looks to explain causal basis

What is a Limitation of Biological Approaches to Personality?

the mechanisms that drive behavior are largely hidden; still developing good measures

Learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

Fight/Flight/Freeze System

* “Get me out of here system”
* threat sensitivity
* threat detection system
* defensive avoidance
* associated emotion = fear
* linked to panic

Threat Detection Can Result In… (has to do with distance)

* Flight (if far enough away from the threat)
* Freeze (if not far enough away)
* Fight \[back\] (if not far enough away)

Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)

* “watch out” system
* results in approach
* conflict sensitivity
* detects goal conflict
* approach-avoidance conflict
* activates when both the BAS and FFFS are activated
* only activated when there is a potential reward and a potential threat involved
* increased arousal and checking/vigilance
* resolves the conflict between them
* defense approach
* heightened level of arousal
* associated emotion = anxiety

FFFS and BIS Link With Amygdala

* links perceptions with emotional meaning
* involved in assessing threat and reward
* associated with anxiety and fearfulness

“Here and Now” Brian Chemicals

* serotonin
* endocannabinoid
* oxytocin
* endorphin

Serotonin

* mood
* anxiety

Endocannabinoid

* happiness
* delight

Oxytocin

* warmth
* bonding

Endorphin

* pleasure
* satisfaction

Reward Prediction

The difference between expected reward and actual reward

Neuroticism Link with RST and the Big Five

* linked the withdraw aspect of neuroticism with the BAS
* linked the volatility aspect of neuroticism with the FFFS
* most strongly positively associated with the BIS

Extraversion Link with RST and the Big Five

* linked the assertiveness aspect linked with BAS (reward pursuit)
* linked the enthusiasm aspect linked with BAS (pleasure system)

Openness to Experience Link with RST and the Big Five

linked the intellect aspect to the BAS

Conscientiousness Link with RST and the Big Five

* linked low impulsiveness to the BAS
* linked to low levels of trait BIS
* linked to high levels of state BIS

Agreeableness Link with RST and the Big Five

unsure how agreeableness mapped into the RST

* maybe BAS?
* more of a drive for altruism

Critical Thinking

In try to play around with ideas of my own related to what I am learning in university courses

Effort Regulation

I work hard to do well in university courses even if I don’t like what we are doing

Elaboration

I try to apply ideas from course readings in other class activities such as lecture and discussion

Rehearsal

I memorize key words to remind me of important concepts in class

Help-Seeking

I try to identify students in specific university course whom I can ask for help if necessary

Metacognitive Self-Regulation

I try to change the way I study in order to fit the course requirements and the instructor’s teaching style