Unit 6 & 7: Cognitive Psychology and Intelligence

AP psychology with Miss Larochelle (HMHS) (Mixed unit)

assimilation

assimilation

a process that involves fitting new experiences into our existing cognitive schemas without altering the schemas significantly

accomodation

complements the idea of assimilation, this is about adjusting our schemas when new information cannot be fit into them.

gambler’s fallacy

a cognitive bias or mistaken belief related to probability and randomness. It occurs when someone wrongly believes that past events can affect the likelihood of something happening in the future, despite the processes being independent.

sunk-cost fallacy

a cognitive bias that influences decision-making processes. It occurs when individuals continue to commit resources or follow a course of action primarily because they have already invested considerable resources (time, money, effort), not because they believe the current decision or future outcomes justify further investment.

executive functions

Like the managers of your brain. They help you get stuff done and make good decisions and help with organizing, planning, and carrying out tasks

stereotype threat

a psychological phenomenon where individuals feel at risk of confirming negative pre conceived notions about their social group.

functional fixedness

a cognitive bias in psychology that limits a person's ability to use objects or tools in new ways, based on their traditional, usual, or known functions. This concept illustrates how our mental schemas can sometimes prevent us from seeing alternative uses for an item.

multiple intelligence

This theory identifies eight distinct intelligences. Each intelligence represents a different way of processing information, and individuals can excel in one intelligence while being average or below average in another. The idea is to recognize and cultivate these diverse capabilities in educational and professional settings.

chronological age

measures a person's age from their calendar date of birth until the date their age is asked.

test-retest reliability

A specific type of reliability in psychological testing that measures the stability of test scores over time. This form of reliability is crucial for assessments like intelligence tests, where it's important to ensure that the test results are consistent across different testing occasions.

split-half reliability

A measure of the internal consistency of a psychological test, like an intelligence test. It assesses whether different parts of the test contribute equally to what the test is supposed to measure, which in the case of intelligence tests, is typically a person's cognitive ability.

stereotype lift

A psychological phenomenon that occurs when positive preconceived notions about one's social group positively impact an individual's performance.

Flynn effect

Describes the substantial and long-term upward trend in IQ scores observed throughout the 20th century, primarily attributed to improvements in health, education, and overall environmental complexity.

growth mindset

The belief that abilities, including intelligence, can be developed through dedication, hard work, and practice.

fixed mindset

The belief that one's abilities are static and unchangeable. This belief leads individuals to think that talent alone, without effort, determines success.

schemas

A cognitive framework or blueprint that helps organize and interpret information. They are formed from past experiences and knowledge, and they allow us to anticipate what to expect in various situations.

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category, matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

algorithm

a methodical, logical role or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speddier - but also more error-prone - use of heuristics

heuristics

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier, but also more error-prone than algorithms

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to present, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness) we presume such events are common

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

general intelligence (g)

a general intelligence factor that according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

grit

in psychology, it is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

intelligence quotient (IQ)

numerical measure of an individual’s cognitive abilities compared to others in their age group, typically assessed through standardized tests

standardization

the process of establishing consistent testing procedures and norms for administering and scoring psychology assessments

achievement tests

assess a person’s knowledge or skills in a specific area, such as academic subjects or job-related tasks. They measure what an individual has learned or accomplished

aptitude test

measures a person’s potential for learning or mastering specific skills or tasks in the future. They assess innate abilities and predict future performance

validity

the extent to which a test accurately measures what it is intended to measure

construct validity

checks if a test really measures what it’s supposed to. It helps make sure the test gives the right results for what it’s trying to find out

predictive validity

shows how well a test can forecast future outcomes or behaviors. It measures if test scores can predict future performance accurately

reliability

consistency in test results overtime and among different scorers. It assures that a test yields stable and dependable measurements

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8

normal curve

the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution or many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

episodic memory

memories of specific events or experiences that have occurred in your life. These memories are time-stamped in your mind and are tied to particular contexts and emotions.

semantic memory

facts and general knowledge about the world that are not linked to the time and place they were learned. This includes things like the capital of France, the rules of a sport, or the meaning of words.

procedural memory

implicit memory that involves the long-term memory of skills and procedures, often referred to as "knowing how" to do things. It encompasses the memory for motor skills, habits, and other tasks that can be performed without conscious thought once they have been learned.

prospective memory

refers to our ability to remember to perform actions in the future. It involves planning and remembering tasks that need to be completed at a later time.

central executive

the core component of the working memory system and acts much like a control center. It directs attention and coordinates activities across the different parts of working memory.

phonological loop

responsible for dealing with auditory information, including both words and numbers

visuospatial sketchpad

handles visual and spatial information, allowing you to manipulate images and spatial data in your mind. It is used when you visualize scenarios, navigate routes, or track objects in motion

multi-store model

describes how information flows through the human memory system in a series of stages. It consists of three main components: the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

levels of processing model

Proposes that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered. The theory emphasizes that memory retention is not just about using specific strategies, but rather about the depth of mental processing.

structural processing

most superficial level of processing and involves focusing on the physical appearance of words or objects.

phonemic processing

involves focusing on the sound of words. For example, when trying to remember a word, you might repeat it to yourself or think about how it sounds rather than its meaning

semantic processing

the deepest level of processing and involves thinking about the meaning of words or the implications of a sentence

method of loci

This ancient technique involves imagining placing items you want to remember along a familiar path or in specific locations in a familiar room or building. As you mentally walk through these places, you can recall the items in order

categories

involves grouping items based on shared properties or common features. This method reduces the cognitive load by simplifying complex information into broader, more general segments that are easier to recall.

hierarchies

another way to utilize chunking, where information is structured in layers from the most general to the most specific. This not only helps in remembering the information but also in understanding the relationships and importance of various items within the overall structure

memory consolidation

the process by which newly formed memories become stable and integrated into long-term storage. During this process, memories are susceptible to modification and reinterpretation.

massed practice

known as "cramming" in everyday language, is a learning strategy that involves concentrating the study effort into long, intensive sessions without breaks.

distributed practice

Involves spreading learning sessions out over time, it is the opposite of massed practice

primacy effect

The tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning of a list. This occurs because items that appear first are given more attention and cognitive resources, allowing them to be more thoroughly processed and stored in long-term memory.

recency effect

The tendency to better remember the most recently presented items in a sequence. This is because these items are still in the working memory (short-term memory) at the time of recall.

maintenance rehearsal

A cognitive process in psychology used to keep information in short-term memory (STM) or working memory by repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information.

elaborative rehearsal

A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the information to be remembered, rather than merely repeating the information to oneself. This method is part of the deeper cognitive process of encoding that helps create lasting connections within the brain.

memory retention

the ability to recall information over time, whether it's short-term or long-term

autobiographical memory

a type of memory in psychology that consists of recollections of personal experiences that occurred at a specific time and place in one's life

Alzheimer’s disease

A progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes.

retrieval cues

stimuli that help you recall a memory. These cues can be words, sights, sounds, smells, or even emotions that trigger the memory of past events or information.

context-dependent memory

a phenomenon in psychology where people are better able to recall information when they are in the same context, or environment, in which they originally encoded the information.

state-dependent memory

a phenomenon in psychology where a person's mental and physiological state can significantly influence their ability to recall memories.

metacognition

refers to the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, and in the context of memory, it involves the knowledge about and regulation of one’s memory functions.

the forgetting curve

a concept developed by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, which describes the decline of memory retention over time. This curve illustrates how information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain it.

encoding failure

refers to a situation where information does not get stored in long-term memory because it was never properly encoded into short-term memory in the first place. This often happens when people fail to pay sufficient attention to the information at the time of encoding.

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

a common cognitive experience where an individual feels certain that they know a piece of information, such as a word, a name, or a fact, but cannot quite retrieve it from memory at that moment

constructive memory

refers to the process by which individuals actively reconstruct their memories based on various factors such as past experiences, beliefs, expectations, and suggestions.

imagination inflation

when repeatedly visualizing events that never actually happened can lead individuals to believe they did

infantile amnesia

refers to the phenomenon where adults have difficulty remembering events from their early childhood, typically before the age of three or four

working memory model

a form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information. Short-term and long-term memories combine.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Encoding

The process of information into the memory system -for example, by extracting meaning

Storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is store or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory system. Includes knowledge skills and experiences

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare“ (also called declarative memory)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency and of well learned information such as word meanings

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within three or four seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term relation retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing affect

enhanced memory after retrieving rather than simply rereading information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

shallow processing

encoding on basic level based on structure or appearance or words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory