PSYC 289 Exam 2

schemes

mental categories that organize experience

assimilation

new experiences are readily incorporated into existing schemes

accommodation

schemes are modified based on experience

equilibration

when disequilibrium occurs, children reorganize their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium

sensorimotor (ages 0-2)

* adapting to and exploring the environment
* object permanence

preoperational (ages 2-7)

* gains in mental representation
* make-believe play
* symbol-real world relations": dual representation
* limitations in thinking

concrete operational

ages 7-11

formal operational

* 11 years and up
* reason abstractly around 11 years

egocentrism

child believes that all people see the world as they do

centration

child focuses on one aspect of a problem/situation but ignores other relevant aspects

appearance as reality

child assumes that an object really is what is appears to be

criticisms of piaget

* underestimated ages
* doesn’t account for variability in performance
* undervalues the influence of the sociocultural environment

core knowledge hypothesis

infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world, which is elaborated based on experiences

mental hardware

built-in and neural structures that allow the mind to operate

mental software

mental “programs” that are the basis for performing particular tasks

attention

process that determines which sensory info receives additional cognitive processing

orienting response

an individual views a strong/unfamiliar stimulus, and changes in heart rate and brain-wave activity occur

habituation

diminished response to a stimulus as it becomes more familiar

classical conditioning

neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally produced by another stimulus

operant conditioning

focuses on the relation between the consequences of behavior and the likelihood that the behavior will occur

autobiographical memory

refers to people’s memory of significant events and experiences of their own lives

vygotsky’s theory

* social constructivist approach
* inner speech is important
* **endpoint** varies by culture
* **teacher** facilitator and guide

piaget theory

* constructivist, but no social emphasis
* inner speech is immature
* **endpoint** formation operations
* **teacher** primarily a facilitator, but also a guide

zone of proximal development

differences between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone

scaffolding

teachers match the amount of assistance they offer to learner’s needs

private speech

comments that aren’t intended for others but help child regulate their behavior

phonemes

unique sounds that can be joined to create words

infant-directed speech

adults speak slowly, with exaggerated changes in pitch and loudness, and with emotional expression

fast mapping

ability to connect new words to referents so rapidly that they can’t be considering all possible meanings for new words

referential style

language-learning style of children whose vocabularies are dominated by names of objects, people, or actions

expressive style

language-learning style of children whose vocabularies include many social phrases that are used like one word

telegraphic speech

speech that contains only words necessary to convey a message

grammatical morphemes

words/ending of words that make a sentence grammatical

overregularizations

grammatical usage that results from applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule

how children acquire grammar B.F. Skinner and learning theorists

learned through imitation and reinforcement

how children acquire grammar linguistic answer

children are born with mechanisms that simplify the tasks of learning grammar

how children acquire grammar cognitive answer

learn grammar through powerful cognitive skills that detect regularities in their environment, including patterns in the speech they hear

how children acquire grammar social-interaction answer

a lot of language learning takes place in the context of interactions between children and adults

birth to 1 year talking milestones

beginning of coo between 2-4 months and then begin to babble at ab 6 months

about first birthday talking milestones

begin to talk and gesture showing they have begun to use symbols

1-3 years talking milestones

vocabulary expands rapidly. more complex sentences are evident by three years

3-5 years talking milestones

children begin to adjust their speech to listeners but often ignore problems in messages they receive

birth to year erikson’s stage of early psychosocial development

basic trust vs mistrust

1-3 years erikson’s stage of early psychosocial development

autonomy vs shame and doubt

3-6 years erikson’s stage of early psychosocial development

initiative vs guilt

hope

* strength at birth - 1 year
* openness to new experience tempered by wariness that discomfort/danger may arise

will

* strength at 1-3 years
* knowledge that, with in limits, youngsters can act on their world intentionally

purpose

* strength at 3-6 years
* achieved with a balance between initiative and willingness to cooperate with others

attachment

enduring socioemotional relationships between infants and their caregivers

preattachment (birth to 6-8 weeks)

babies rapidly learn to recognize mother by smell and sound

attachment in the making (6-8 weeks to 6-8 months)

babies smile more and laugh more often with the primary caregiver and whey they’re upset they’re easily consoled by the primary caregiver

true attachment (6-8 to 18 months)

by 6/8 months, most infants have singled out the attachment figure and trust them

reciprocal relationships (18 months on)

infants’ growing cognitive and language skills allow them to act as true partners in the attachment relationship

secure attachment

* infants have come to trust and depend on their mothers
* baby may/may not cry when the mother leaves but when she returns wants to be with her

avoidant attachment

* infants turn from their mothers when they’re reunited following a brief separation
* baby isn’t upset when the mother leaves and, when she returns, may ignore her

resistant attachment

after a brief separation, infant wants to be held but are difficult to console

disorganized (disoriented) attachment

* infants don’t seem to understand what’s happening when they’re separated and later reunited with their mothers
* baby seems confused when the mother leaves and comes back

internal working model

set of expectations about parents’ availability and responsiveness

basic emotions

consists of three elements: subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior

social smiles

smile infants produce when they see a human face, starts at 2-3 months

stranger wariness

infants become wary in the presence of an unfamiliar adult, occurs at about 6 months

social referencing

behavior in which infants in unfamiliar/ambiguous environments look at an adult for cues to help them interpret the situation

parallel play

when children play along but are aware of an interested in what another child is doing

simple social play

play that begins at about 15-18 months and continues into toddlerhood, when talking and smiling at each other also occur

cooperative play

play organized around a theme, with each child taking a different roles that being at about 2 years of age

enabling actions

actions and remarks tend to support others and sustain interaction

constricting actions

one parter tries to emerge as the victor by threatening/contradicting the other, by exaggerating and so on

parent influence in play

* playmate
* social director
* coach
* mediator

altruism

behavior driven by feelings of responsibility toward other people, such as helping and sharing, in which individual don’t benefit directly from their actions

social role

set of cultural guidelines as to how a person should behave, particularly with other people

relational aggression

aggression used to hurt others by undermining their social relationships

gender-schema theory

a theory that states children want to learn more about an an activity only first after deciding whether it’s masculine/feminine

goodness of fit

match between a child’s temperament and environmental demands (parenting practices)

5-6 month emotion measuring

facial expression form a distinct coherent pattern

mental operations

actions that can be performed on objects/ideas and that consistently yield a result

deductive reasoning

characteristic of formal-operational thought that involved drawing conclusions from facts

organization

structuring information to be remembered by putting related information together

elaboration

embellishing information to make it more memorable

metamemory

person’s informal understanding of memory, including the ability to diagnose memory problems accurately and to monitor the effectiveness of memory strategies

metacognition

person’s knowledge and awareness of cognitive processes

types of intelligence

* linguistic
* logical mathematical
* musical
* bodily--kinesthetic
* interpersonal
* intrapersonal
* naturalistic
* existential

mental age

measure of children’s performance corresponding to the chronological age of those whose performance equals the child’s

intelligence quotient

ratio of mental age to chronological age multplied by 10

divergent thinking

thinking in novel and unusual directions

phonological awareness

ability to distinguish the sounds in spoken words

knowledge-telling strategy

writing down info on the topic as they retrieve it from memory

knowledge-transforming strategy

deciding what information to include and how to best organize for the point they wish to convey

permissive parenting

offers warmth and caring but little control over children

uninvolved parenting

neither warmth nor control and minimizes the amount of time parents spend with children

negative reinforcement trap

unwittingly reinforcing a behavior you want to discourage

co-rumination

conversation about personal problems common among adolescent girls

crowd

larger mix-sex group of people who have similar values and attitudes

instrumental aggression

child use aggression to achieve an explicit goal

hostile aggression

unprovoked and is designed to intimidate, harass/humiliate another child

undifferentiated (3-6)

children know that they and others can have different thoughts and feelings often confuse the two

social information (4-9)

children know that perspectives differ bc ppl have access to different information

self-reflective (7-12)

children can step into another’s shoes and view themselves as others do; they know that others can do the same

third person (10-15)

children can step outside of the immediate situation to see how they and another person are viewed by a third person

societal (14-adult)

adolescents realize that a third-person perspective is influenced by broader personal, social, and cultural contexts

early maturing girls

* unpopular, withdrawn, low confidence
* more deviant behavior
* negative body image
* more long-term problems