AP Psych Midterm ALL VOCAB EVER

Psychology

the scientific study of the mind and behavior

Confirmation Bias

the tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Empirical Evidence

information acquired by observation or experimentation

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to research where a problem is identified, relevant data is gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from this data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Falsifiable

capable of being disproved by experimental results

Peer Review

a process by which something proposed (as for research or publication) is evaluated by a group of experts in the appropriate field

Replication

the action of repeating a study, using the same methods to see if the original results can be consistently reproduced

Reliability

the consistency of a research study or measuring test

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to do

The American Psychological Association (APA)

a professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

*Quantitative Data

information about quantities; that is, information that can be measured and written down with numbers

*Qualitative Data

descriptive information, which often comes from interviews, focus groups, or artistic depictions such as photographs

Likert Scales

A psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires, and is the most widely used scale in survey research

Structured Interviews

a quantitative research method where the interviewer asks a set sequence of questions

Survey Technique

a research technique that involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions

Wording Effect

the effect that question phrasing and order have on survey data

Social Desirability Bias

a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself

*Naturalistic Observation

observing subjects in their natural environment without manipulation or control by the researcher

*Case Study

an in-depth study of a single person, group, event or community

Correlational Research

a type of non-experimental research method, which studies the relationship between two variables with the help of statistical analysis (no manipulation)

Third Variable Problem

A form of confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two others

Scatterplot

a graphical representation of the values of two variables for a set of data

*Positive Correlation

a relationship between two variables in which both variables move in the same direction. For example, as one variable increases, the other also increases, indicating a direct relationship

*Negative Correlation

a relationship between two variables in which the variables move in opposite directions. For example, as one variable increases, the other decreases, indicating an inverse relationship

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

-correlation is NOT causation

Experimental Method

A method of research where the researcher manipulates one variable and controls/randomizes the rest of the variables

*Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher

*Dependent Variable

The variable that is tested and measured in an experiment

*Confounding Variable

a variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable causing a spurious association

*Operational Definitions

specifically defining a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated in a study (ensures consistency and clarity in research)

Experimental Group

the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested

Control Group

the group in an experiment that does not receive the test variable

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Experimenter Bias

a process where the scientists performing the research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome

*Single-Blind Study

a study in which the participants do not know whether they are in the control group or the experimental group, but the researchers do

*Double-Blind Study

a study in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment

Placebo Condition

a condition in which treatment is not administered but the subject believes that it is administered

Sample

a subset of individuals from a larger population, used to conduct research

Representative Sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Sample Bias

A bias that occurs when a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others

Generalizability

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized or extended to others

Standard Deviation

a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values

Percentile Rank

the percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it

Statistics

a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data

*Descriptive Statistics

statistics that summarize the data collected in a study

*Inferential Statistics

statistics that allow one to make predictions and inferences about a population based on a sample of data

Measure of Central Tendency

a statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of an entire distribution

Mean

the average of a set of numerical values

Median

the middle value in a list of numbers

Mode

the value that appears most often in a set of data

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset

Normal curve

a bell-shaped curve that represents a distribution of values, frequencies, or probabilities so that most measurements are concentrated around the middle

Positive Skew

This happens when more numbers in a list are on the lower side, but a few really high numbers stretch the average higher

Negative Skew

This is when more numbers in a list are on the higher side, but a few really low numbers pull the average down

Statistical Significance

this tells us if the result of an experiment is probably true or just happens by chance. It checks if what we found in our experiment would happen often, or is rare when we think nothing special is going on

P-value < 0.05 = statistically significant difference

P-value > 0.05 = no statistically significant difference

Effect Sizes

This measures how big the impact of something is in an experiment. For example, it tells us how much a medicine really helps compared to not using the medicine at all

Meta Analysis

a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

A committee that reviews and approves research involving human subjects, ensuring that ethical standards are met

*Informed Consent

permission granted with the knowledge of the possible consequences, typically that which is given by a patient to a doctor for treatment with full knowledge of the possible risks and benefits

*Informed Assent

agreement by a minor or other parties not able to give legal consent to participate in the activity

Confidentiality

the requirement that private or sensitive information is not disclosed without the consent of the person who provided it

Deception

the act of misleading or wrongly informing someone about the true nature of a situation

Confederates

individuals who appear to be participants in a study but are actually part of the research team

Debriefing

providing participants in a study with a full explanation of the study after its completion, including the purpose and any deceptions used

Research Design (broader framework)

The overall plan (blueprint) for how you will answer a research question. It includes deciding what you want to study, what you want to find out, and how you will gather and analyze your information

Methodology (specific techniques)

The tools and methods you use to collect your data/specific ways to gather information

Evolutionary Perspective

looks at how human behaviors helped our ancestors survive and reproduce

*Natural Selection

process where traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on more frequently

*Nature

the influence of genetic factors on traits and behaviors

*Nurture

the influence of environmental factors on traits and behaviors

Twin Studies

research comparing the similarities between identical and fraternal twins to understand the influence of genetics versus environment

Adoption studies

studies that compare biologically related people, including those raised apart, to understand genetic influences

Family studies

research looking at behavioral traits in families to determine how much is genetic versus environmental

*Heredity

the passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes

*Genetic predisposition

the likelihood of developing certain traits or disorders based on genetics

*Eugenics

a controversial and unethical movement aimed at improving the genetic composition of humans through selective breeding

Cerebral Cortex

the outer layer of the brain, involved in complex mental processes such as thinking

Frontal lobes

involved in decision-making, problem-solving, and controlling behavior

Prefrontal cortex

part of the frontal lobes involved in planning complex behaviors and expressing personality

Executive functioning

higher order processes including planning, organizing, and regulating behavior

Motor Cortex

controls voluntary movements

Parietal lobes

processes sensory information like touch and spatial awareness

Somatosensory Cortex

area of the brain that processes sensory input from various body parts

Occipital lobes

responsible for vision

Temporal Lobes

involved in hearing, memory, and understanding language

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body

Corpus Callosum

thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres; severed in split brain research

Brainstem

supports basic life functions, including heart rate, breathing, and sleeping

Medulla

part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions like heartbeat and breathing

Reticular Activating System

regulates wakefulness and sleep-wake cycles

Cerebellum

coordinates voluntary movements like posture, balance, and coordination

Limbic System

involved in emotion, motivation, and memory

Reward Center

brain areas that regulate the experience of pleasure.

Thalamus

relay motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and other homeostatic systems

Pituitary Gland

the master gland of the endocrine system that regulates other glands