Measurement and Data Processing (IB)

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Qualitative Analysis

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Analysis based on measurements and associated uncertainties.

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Quantitative Analysis

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Comes from measurements and is always associated with uncertainties determined by either the apparatus or human limitations such as reaction times and sight.

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60 Terms

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Qualitative Analysis

Analysis based on measurements and associated uncertainties.

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Quantitative Analysis

Comes from measurements and is always associated with uncertainties determined by either the apparatus or human limitations such as reaction times and sight.

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Precision

Closeness of agreement between test results.

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Accuracy

Closeness of agreement between a measurement result and the true value.

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Scientific Notation

A way to express extremely large/small numbers in a compact form as a coefficient multiplied to a power of 10 (a x 10^n).

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Significant Figures

Digits reflecting the precision of a measurement.

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Experimental Error

Uncertainty associated with a measurement due to systematic or random errors.

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Systematic Error

A flaw in experimental design or methodology. This affects the accuracy of the results.

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Random Error

Occurs because of uncontrolled variables. Cannot be eliminated. This affects the precision of the results.

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Absolute Uncertainty

Margin of uncertainty associated with a measurement result.

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Relative Uncertainty

Ratio comparing the size of absolute uncertainty to the measurement.

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Graphical Techniques

Methods to show the relationship between variables in graphs.

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Sketched Graph

Graphs with labeled but unscaled axes, used to show qualitative trends such as proportional or inversely proportional relationships. Units are not required.

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Drawn Graph

Graphs with labeled and scaled axes, based on quantitative measurements. They always display appropriate units for variables.

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Dependence

Any statistical relationship between two sets of data or random variables.

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Independent Variable

The variable that represents the cause, plotted on the x-axis in a graph of Y versus X.

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Dependent Variable

The variable that represents the effect, plotted on the y-axis in a graph of Y versus X.

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Correlation

Statistical measure indicating the relationship between variables.

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Positive Correlation

A relationship where two variables increase or decrease in parallel.

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Negative Correlation

A relationship where one variable increases while the other decreases, or vice versa.

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Correlation Coefficient ( r )

A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables, represented by the symbol r.

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Scatter Plot

A graph that shows the scatter of various points, representing the relationship between two variables.

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Degree of Unsaturation

Index used to determine the number of rings or double bonds in a compound.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

Range of electromagnetic radiation used in spectroscopy techniques.

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r = +1

Indicates a perfect positive linear relationship where all points lie on a straight line.

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r=0

Indicates no linear relationship; the points are completely scattered.

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r=−1

Indicates a perfect negative linear relationship where all points lie on a straight line.

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Slope (m)

The tangent of the angle (θ) that the line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis.

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Intercept (c)

The point where the line cuts the y-axis at x=0.

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Extrapolation

The process of estimating values beyond the given data range based on the trend of the data.

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Equation of a Line

Represented as y=mx+b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.

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Best Fit Line

A straight line that minimizes the distance between itself and the data points in a scatter plot.

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Degree of Unsaturation (IHD)

A measure used to determine the number of rings or double bonds in a molecular formula.

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Double Bond

Contributes 1 IHD.

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Triple Bond

Contributes 2 IHD.

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Ring

Contributes 1 IHD.

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Aromatic Compound

Contributes 4 IHD (3 double bonds + 1 ring).

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IHD Formula

For CcHhNnOoXx: IHD=0.5(2c+2−h−x+n).

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Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS)

The range of all types of electromagnetic radiation. Different regions of the spectrum form the basis for various types of spectroscopy.

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Planck's Equation

Relates the energy of radiation (E) to its frequency (v): E=hv, where h=6.63×10−34 J⋅s.

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X-ray Spectroscopy

Uses high-energy X-rays to remove electrons from inner atomic energy levels, providing structural information such as bond distances and angles (basis of X-ray crystallography).

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UV-Vis Spectroscopy

Based on visible and UV light causing electronic transitions, providing information about the electronic energy levels in atoms or molecules.

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Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy

Uses IR radiation to cause molecular vibrations (stretching, bending, twisting) that provide information about functional groups.

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Microwave Spectroscopy

Causes molecular rotations and provides information about bond lengths.

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NMR Spectroscopy

Uses radiowaves in a strong magnetic field to induce nuclear spin transitions, giving information about the chemical environments and connectivity of atoms in a molecule.

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Infrared Spectroscopy (Spring Model)

Covalent bonds are modeled as springs that stretch, bend, or twist, causing molecular vibrations. This model forms the basis for IR spectroscopy.

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Hooke's Law

Describes the force required to cause vibration in the spring model of IR spectroscopy.

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Vibration Frequency

Lighter atoms vibrate at higher frequencies; heavier atoms vibrate at lower frequencies.

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Multiple Bonds

Multiple bonds (e.g., double and triple bonds) follow the same trend as lighter atoms, vibrating at higher frequencies.

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Bond Enthalpy and Absorption

Different molecules absorb at different frequencies due to variations in bond enthalpy.

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Wavenumber

IR absorptions are typically reported as wavenumber (1/λ), measured in cm−1.

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Proton NMR Spectroscopy (¹H NMR)

Provides information about the different chemical environments of hydrogen atoms in a molecule.

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Spin States of Hydrogen Nuclei

Based on the principle that hydrogen nuclei have two possible spin states and act like tiny magnets.

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Chemical Shift

The position of the spin relative to the standard spin (tetramethylsilane, TMS).

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Hydrogen Ratio

Provides the relative number of hydrogens in each environment, presented as a ratio.

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Area Under the Curve

The area under the curve in an NMR spectrum corresponds to the number of hydrogens in that environment.

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Mass Spectroscopy

Provides additional information about functional groups in a molecule.

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Molecular Ion (M⁺)

Formed when a gaseous molecule is ionized; represents the intact molecule's ion.

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Fragmentation Pattern

The pattern in a mass spectrum showing the masses of fragments after functional groups are removed.

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Molecular Ion Peak

The peak in a mass spectrum corresponding to the molecular mass of the compound.