exam two

the process of assigning numbers or labels to phenomena or characteristics of individuals, objects, or events according to specific correspondence rules.

measurement

what are the four levels of measurement scales?

nominal

ordinal

interval

ratio

classifies or identifies categories where numbers have no inherent meaning and analysis is limited to frequency counts and percentages.

nominal scale

arranges categories in a meaningful order, but the intervals between the categories are not assumed to be equal.

ordinal scale

includes the properties of nominal and ordinal scales and assumes equal distances between numbers, allowing statistical analysis such as means and standard deviations.

interval scale

contains all the properties of nominal, ordinal, and interval scales and has an absolute zero point, meaning the numbers represent actual quantities.

ratio scale

what is the key difference between interval and ratio scales?

ratio scales have a true zero point

interval scales do not

what does it mean for response categories to be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive?

mutually exclusive means each response fits into only one category

collectively exhaustive means all possible responses are covered.

the degree to which a measurement is free from random error and produces consistent results over time.

reliability

a reliability coefficient that measures the internal consistency of items within a scale.

cronbach's alpha

what cronbach's alpha value generally indicates acceptable reliability?

a value of 0.70 or higher.

the ability of a measurement scale to measure what it is intended to measure and the degree to which it is free from systematic and random error.

validity

the judgment by researchers or experts that a measurement appears to measure what it is supposed to measure.

face validity

evaluates whether the items in a measurement adequately cover the entire concept or construct being studied.

content validity

measures how well a scale can predict future actions or behaviors.

predictive validity

evaluates how well a measurement represents the theoretical concept it is intended to measure.

construct validity

refers to the degree to which measures that should be related are actually correlated.

convergent validity

tests whether measures that should not be related actually have low correlations.

divergent (discriminant) validity

numerical summaries used to describe and summarize data, such as means, frequencies, percentages, and standard deviations.

descriptive statistics

why are interval and ratio scales often preferred in research?

because they provide more detailed information and allow for more advanced statistical analysis.

what is the process of choosing a group of individuals to study?

sampling

what is the group of individuals chosen for the research project called?

sample

what is the larger group from which a sample is drawn called?

population

what is a study of every member of the population called?

census

what is the first step in the sampling process?

define the population

how does a broad population definition affect incidence rates?

broad definitions result in higher incidence rates, while restricted definitions result in lower incidence rates

what is the list of people or objects from which the sample is drawn?

sample frame

a sampling method where each member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected, and sampling error can be computed

probability sampling

a sampling method where the chance of selection is unknown, sampling error cannot be computed, and generalizability is limited

nonprobability sampling

what is the difference between a fixed and a sequential sample?

a fixed sample size is determined before data collection

a sequential sample is selected in stages until research objectives are met

a probability sampling method where each element has an equal chance of being selected

simple random sample

a probability sampling method where the first respondent is randomly selected, then every Nth element is chosen

systematic random sample

a probability sampling method where the population is divided into mutually exclusive and exhaustive groups, and elements are randomly selected from each group

stratified sample

a probability sampling method where the population is divided into representative clusters, and elements are randomly selected from the clusters

cluster sample

a nonprobability sampling method where participants are chosen based on convenience

convenience sample

a nonprobability sampling method where the researcher uses personal judgment to select participants

judgement sample

a nonprobability sampling method where the sample reflects specific characteristics or criteria of the target population

quota sample

a nonprobability sampling method where initial respondents refer additional participants to the study

snowball sample

how do researchers determine sample size?

by using general practice, previous studies, statistical formulas, sample size calculators, or sample size tables

what are online research panels, and what are some of their advantages and disadvantages?

online research panels are pre-recruited groups who complete research tasks

advantages include faster data collection, cost-effectiveness, efficient targeting, and use of multimedia

disadvantages include bias from professional respondents or heavy internet users, attrition, and international differences in internet access.

what is the purpose of a t-test, what are the null and alternative hypotheses, what are the two types of t-tests, and how are results interpreted using p-values?

a t-test compares the means of two groups. The null hypothesis states no difference the alternative states a difference.

Independent samples t-test compares two separate groups; paired-samples t-test compares two related groups.

what are the specific ethical concerns in marketing experiments?

no physical or mental risk

right to withdraw

knowledge of data use

confidentiality or anonymity

debriefing.

what factors are considered when selecting test markets?

population size

demographic composition

market situation

media options

distribution options

what can be tested in test markets?

new products

brand extensions

consumer promotions

pricing

advertising and communications

distribution

what are the main challenges of test markets?

cost

time

controlling extraneous variables

competitive reactions

measuring results

novelty vs. normal behavior

test length

what are the three types of test markets?

standard

controlled

simulated (virtual).

what characterizes quasi-experimental designs?

no randomization and limited control over the environment.

what characterizes true experimental designs?

random assignment and inclusion of a control group.

what characterizes pre-experimental designs?

no randomization

little control over extraneous variables

weak internal validity

what are the three criteria to establish causality?

temporal precedence

concomitant variation

non-spurious correlation.

what does experimental notation use R, X, and O to represent?

R = random assignment

X = treatment

O = observation/measurement.

what are the main threats to internal validity?

history

maturation

testing effect

instrumentation effect

selection effect

mortality (attrition).

variables other than the independent variable that may affect the dependent variable.

extraneous variables (confounds)

how well a study measures what it is supposed to measure.

validity

what is the difference between internal and external validity?

internal validity is whether the treatment alone caused the effect

external validity is whether results can be generalized

the deliberate change in the independent variable.

manipulation in an experiment

what is the difference between a treatment group and a control group?

the treatment group receives the manipulation

the control group does not

what is the difference between an independent and dependent variable?

the independent variable is the cause that is manipulated

the dependent variable is the effect that is measured

what are the basic components of experimental design?

subjects

independent variable

dependent variable

treatment group

control group

manipulation

validity

what is the main purpose of survey research in marketing?

to collect information to answer "w questions" and provide mostly quantitative data.

why are surveys considered flexible in research?

because they can collect a wide variety of information, adapt to different topics, and be conducted using multiple methods (online, mail, phone, in-person).

what is the difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?

cross-sectional studies collect data at a single point in time

longitudinal studies collect data at multiple points in time to track changes over time.

a group of respondents who are surveyed repeatedly over time in a longitudinal study.

consumer panel

the error that occurs due to chance differences between the sample and the population.

random (sampling) error

name three types of sample design errors.

population specification error

sample frame error

selection error

errors caused by problems with the respondents, such as non-response bias or response bias.

respondent error

an error caused by a problem in the research design or research process.

systematic error

when respondents deliberately or unconsciously provide incorrect, false, or misleading answers.

response bias

the difference between the measured value and the true value of a concept, including process errors, interviewer errors, instrument errors, or order effects.

measurement error

why do people take surveys?

to receive rewards

voice their opinions

help companies

fill free time

learn about market research

name five types of incentives used in surveys.

donations to charity

gift cards or money

coupons

sweepstakes or lotteries

points programs

what are some advantages of telephone surveys?

low cost

faster than mail surveys

CATI systems reduce some errors

easy to use skip patterns

what are some disadvantages of telephone surveys?

limited information

short survey length

screening devices

declining landline use

and declining response rates

what are some advantages of mail surveys?

higher response rates

confidential

good for sensitive topics

no interviewer error

convenient

can include visuals

representative of the population

what are some disadvantages of mail surveys?

costly and slow

cannot clarify questions

uncertainty about who completes it

what are some advantages of personal interviews or intercept surveys?

question clarification

lower item non-response

more complete answers

longer interviews

use of visuals

higher participation

what are some disadvantages of personal interviews or intercept surveys?

wall intercepts may not be representative

lack of anonymity

poor for sensitive topics

interviewer bias

higher costs

what factors should researchers consider when selecting a survey method?

cost

time frame

precision/accuracy

questionnaire length

questionnaire structure

incidence rate

sample characteristics

which survey method generally has the highest cost?

personal interviews or intercept surveys.

which survey method is generally the slowest?

mail surveys

the range within which the true population value is expected to fall due to sampling error.

margin of error

what is the difference between confidence level and confidence interval?

confidence level is the probability that the margin of error contains the true population value

confidence interval is the range of values around the sample statistic where the true value likely falls.

observation research

the systematic process of recording the behavior or the results of behaviors of people, objects, and occurrences.

what are the three conditions for observation research?

1) action or behavior is observable

2) action or behavior is repetitive or frequent

3) action or behavior is of short duration.

what is the difference between natural and contrived dimensions of observation research?

natural: behavior occurs in a natural setting

contrived: behavior occurs in a controlled setting.

in disguised observation, do subjects know they are being observed?

no, subjects do not know they are being observed

which type of observation involves watching the results of behavior rather than the behavior itself?

indirect observation

what is the key difference between structured and unstructured observation?

structured: uses a checklist and is less subjective

unstructured: records behaviors deemed relevant and is more subjective.

what is an advantage of mechanical observation compared to human observation?

data accuracy and objectivity.

name two advantages of observation research.

1) actual behavior may be more accurate than recall

2) useful when participants are reluctant or unable to provide information.

what is a limitation of observation research?

only observable behavior can be reported; cannot discern motives, attitudes, or feelings.

list four types of human observation methods.

1) in-person observation

2) camera/one-way mirror

3) mystery shopping

4) ethnographic research

give two examples of online observation methods.

social media monitoring (text analytics) and web tracking.

what are some examples of mechanical observation method?

market basket analysis, radio and tv monitoring, eye tracking

name three things that can be observed using observation research.

1) inventories

2) non-verbal reactions

3) physical movements (others include web traffic, scanner data, television viewing).

what is cross-tabulation used for?

examining the relationship between two nominal or ordinal variables using frequency counts or percentages.

what is the purpose of the chi-square test of independence?

to determine if two nominal or ordinal variables are associated with each other.

state the null and alternative hypotheses in a chi-square test.

H₀: the two variables are independent.

Hₐ: the variables are related.

iIn chi-square analysis, if p < α, what is the conclusion?

reject the null hypothesis; the variables are related.

what is one advantage and one disadvantage of observing behavior in a natural setting?

advantage: subjects act naturally.

disadvantage: researcher must wait for behavior to occur; environment may confound results.