Unit 3 POLS (ATC)

Apportionment

Distribution of House seats among states based on population after each Census.

Reapportionment

Reassigning the number of congressional seats per state after the Census.

Malapportionment

Unequal representation due to districts having different population sizes.

Redistricting

Redrawing congressional district lines; done by state legislatures every 10 years.

Gerrymandering

Manipulating district boundaries to favor one party or group.

House of Representatives

435 members, 2

Senate

100 members, 6

House Qualifications

Must be 25 years old and a U.S. citizen for at least 7 years.

Senate Qualifications

Must be 30 years old and a U.S. citizen for at least 9 years.

Seventeenth Amendment

Allowed direct election of U.S. Senators by voters.

Fenno’s Paradox

People dislike Congress but like their own representative.

Incumbency Advantage

Tendency of current officeholders to be reelected due to name recognition and resources.

Casework

When members of Congress help constituents solve problems with federal agencies.

Pork Barrel Spending

Funding local projects to please voters or bring money to a district.

Trustee

Representative who votes based on personal judgment, not public opinion.

Delegate

Representative who votes according to the wishes of constituents.

Politico

Representative who acts as trustee or delegate depending on the situation.

Standing Committee

Permanent congressional committee that handles specific policy areas.

Conference Committee

Joint committee that resolves differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

Rules Committee

House committee that sets the rules for debate and amendments on bills.

Open Rule

Allows amendments to be made to a bill during debate.

Closed Rule

Prohibits amendments to a bill during debate.

Discharge Petition

House motion that forces a bill out of committee; requires 218 signatures.

Unanimous Consent Agreement

Senate agreement between party leaders to set debate rules and schedule votes.

Filibuster

Senate tactic where a minority delays or blocks a vote by speaking for an extended time.

Cloture

Vote to end a filibuster; requires 60 votes in the Senate.

Veto

President formally rejects a bill passed by Congress.

Pocket Veto

President lets a bill die by taking no action when Congress adjourns within 10 days.

Revenue Bills

Must originate in the House of Representatives.

How a Bill Becomes Law (Step 1)

Bill is introduced in either chamber (House or Senate).

How a Bill Becomes Law (Step 2)

Bill goes to a standing committee for hearings and revisions.

How a Bill Becomes Law (Step 3)

If approved, it moves to the full chamber for debate and vote.

How a Bill Becomes Law (Step 4)

House debate follows Rules Committee limits; Senate debate can be unlimited.

How a Bill Becomes Law (Step 5)

Senate filibuster can delay action unless 60 votes for cloture end debate.

How a Bill Becomes Law (Step 6)

If both chambers pass different versions, a Conference Committee reconciles them.

How a Bill Becomes Law (Step 7)

Final version is voted on again in both chambers.

How a Bill Becomes Law (Step 8)

Bill goes to the president for signature or veto.

How a Bill Becomes Law (Step 9)

Congress can override a veto with two

President Qualifications

Must be 35 years old, natural

Twenty

Second Amendment

Constitutional Powers of the President

Commander

Congressional Checks on the President

Override vetoes, confirm appointments, approve budgets, and declare war.

War Powers Act

President must notify Congress within 48 hours of troop deployment; limit 60 days without approval.

Executive Order

Directive from the president with the force of law; no Congressional approval needed.

Constitutional Theory of Presidential Power

President can only act where the Constitution or Congress explicitly allows.

Stewardship Theory

President can do anything not forbidden by the Constitution.

Prerogative Theory

President may act outside the law during national emergencies.

Honeymoon Period

Early months of a presidency when approval ratings are highest.

Rally Around the Flag Effect

Public support rises for the president during national crises.

Common Law System

Legal system based on precedent and judicial decisions.

Precedent

Previous court ruling that guides future decisions.

Stare Decisis

Doctrine that courts follow established precedents.

Judicial Review

Court’s power to declare laws unconstitutional.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established judicial review and strengthened the Supreme Court’s power.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Confirmed federal supremacy and implied powers through the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Ended racial segregation in public schools; “separate but equal” is unconstitutional.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Recognized a constitutional right to privacy protecting abortion decisions (later overturned in 2022).

United States v. Nixon (1974)

Limited executive privilege; president must obey judicial subpoenas.

Judiciary Act of 1789

Created lower federal courts under the Supreme Court.

Original Jurisdiction

Authority to hear a case first.

Appellate Jurisdiction

Authority to review decisions from lower courts.

U.S. District Courts

Federal trial courts where evidence and witnesses are heard.

U.S. Courts of Appeal

Review cases for legal error; panels of 3 judges.

Supreme Court of the United States

Highest court; final authority on constitutional issues.

Writ of Certiorari

Formal request for Supreme Court review of a case.

Rule of Four

At least four justices must agree to hear a case.

Amicus Curiae Brief

“Friend of the court” brief submitted by outside groups offering information or arguments.

Majority Opinion

Official written decision explaining the Court’s ruling.

Concurring Opinion

Agrees with the ruling but for different reasons.

Dissenting Opinion

Disagrees with the majority’s decision.

Judicial Nomination Factors

Presidents consider ideology, experience, and diversity when nominating judges.

Bureaucracy

System of government agencies that implement and enforce laws and policies.

Hierarchy

Clear chain of command in which authority flows downward.

Division of Labor

Specialization of tasks within an organization.

Rules and Procedures

Formal guidelines ensuring consistent decisions.

Impersonality

Decisions made by rules, not personal feelings or favoritism.

Meritocracy

Hiring and promotion based on qualifications and performance.

Spoils System

Practice of giving government jobs to political supporters.

Patronage

Granting government positions in return for loyalty.

Pendleton Act (1883)

Created a merit

Cabinet Departments

15 major executive departments; most important: State, Defense, Treasury, Justice.

Clientele Department

Cabinet department serving a specific group, such as Agriculture or Veterans Affairs.

Independent Executive Agency

Agency outside cabinet control, like NASA or EPA.

Government Corporation

Government

Iron Triangle

Alliance between Congress, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups.

Congressional Oversight

Congress’s power to monitor and supervise federal agencies.