Unit 2.3 - 2.7 Terms

Memory Terms

Recall

The process of retrieving information from memory, often involving the ability to bring specific details into consciousness without cues, such as a fill-in-the-blank test.

Recognition

A memory process where individuals identify previously learned information when presented with it, often aided by cues, such as multiple-choice questions.

Relearning

The process of re-acquiring previously learned information, often resulting in faster learning compared to the initial acquisition, as seen in studying material over time.

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning.

Storage

The process of maintaining information in the memory system over time, allowing it to be retrieved when needed.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing to consciousness information stored in memory, enabling recall and use of past experiences or learned material.

Parallel Processing

The ability of the brain to simultaneously process incoming information from multiple sources and integrate it for better memory formation and retrieval.

Sensory Memory

The initial stage of memory where sensory information is retained for a very short period, typically less than a second, allowing for the processing of stimuli before it is transferred to short-term memory.

Short-term Memory

The component of memory that holds a small amount of information for a limited duration, typically around 20 to 30 seconds, allowing for temporary storage and manipulation of information.

Long-term Memory

The stage of memory where information is stored indefinitely, allowing for recall and use over extended periods, often categorized into explicit and implicit memory.

Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory.

Central Executive

A memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

Phonological Loop

A component of working memory that processes auditory information and holds it temporarily for manipulation and retrieval.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of working memory that processes an objects’ appearance and location in space, temporarily storing it for manipulation and retrieval.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from their repeated stimulation. This process is believed to be a key mechanism underlying learning and memory.

Explicit Memory

A type of long-term memory that involves the conscious recollection of facts and experiences, often referred to as declarative memory.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.

Implicit Memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection, often referred to as non-declarative memory.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory that involves the ability to perform tasks and skills without conscious awareness, such as riding a bike or typing.

Iconic Memory

A type of sensory memory that holds visual images for a very brief period, typically less than a second, allowing for the retention of visual stimuli.

Echoic Memory

A type of sensory memory that retains auditory information for a short duration, usually 3 to 4 seconds, enabling recall of sounds.

Chunking

A memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, more manageable units, making it easier to remember complex data.

Mnemonics

Techniques or strategies used to enhance memory retention and retrieval by associating information with vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Method of Loci

a mnemonic device that involves associating information with specific locations or landmarks.

Hierarchies

A method of organizing information into a structured format, often arranged from general to specific categories, to aid in understanding and recall.

Distributed Practice

A learning strategy that involves spreading out study sessions over time rather than cramming, which enhances long-term retention of information.

Spacing Effect

The phenomenon where information is more easily recalled when learning is spaced out over time rather than crammed in a single session.

Testing Effect

The enhancement of memory retention and recall when information is tested or self-assessed, as opposed to simply reviewing it.

Shallow Processing

A cognitive processing strategy that focuses on the superficial aspects of information, such as appearance or sound, rather than its meaning, leading to weaker memory retention.

Deep Processing

The cognitive processing of information that involves a deeper analysis, such as understanding meanings and implications, leading to better retention and recall. S

Self-Reference Effect

The phenomenon where individuals have better memory for information when it is related to themselves, as it creates a personal connection that enhances encoding.

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences and specific events, including the context in which they occurred.

Prospective Memory

the ability to remember to perform actions in the future, such as remembering to take medication or attend an appointment.

Memory Consolidation

The process by which recent memories are transformed into a more stable, long-term form, often involving the strengthening of neural connections.

Flashbulb Memories

A highly detailed and vivid memory of a significant event, often associated with strong emotions.

Hippocampus

A brain structure crucial for the formation of new memories, particularly episodic memories, and plays a key role in memory consolidation.

Cerebellum

A brain structure that plays a significant role in motor control, coordination, and the learning of motor skills, as well as influencing cognitive functions and emotional processing.

Basal Ganglia

A group of nuclei in the brain that are involved in coordinating movement and are also important for habit formation and procedural learning.

Amygdala

A brain structure involved in emotion regulation, particularly fear and pleasure responses, as well as in the formation of emotional memories.

Frontal Lobes

Where memories are sent for processing and storage, involved in executive functions such as decision-making, impulse control, and social behavior.

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help access information stored in memory, aiding recall during remembering tasks.

Priming

A cognitive process where exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus, enhancing memory retrieval or recognition.

Context-Dependent Memory

The phenomenon where the ability to recall information is improved when in the same context or environment where the information was originally learned.

Encoding Specificity Principle

The theory stating that memory is improved when retrieval occurs in the same context as the initial encoding of the information.

State-Dependent Memory

The phenomenon where memory recall is enhanced when an individual is in the same physiological or emotional state as when the memory was formed.

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one's current mood, enhancing retrieval when in a similar emotional state.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items, affecting memory performance during recall.

Metacognition

The awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, including the ability to rInegulate and control cognitive activities during learning.

Interleaving

A learning technique that involves mixing different topics or forms of practice to improve retention and understanding.

Anterograde Amnesia

A type of memory loss where a person cannot form new memories after the onset of amnesia, while memories from before the event remain intact.

Retrograde Amnesia

A type of memory loss characterized by an inability to recall events that occurred before the onset of amnesia, while the ability to form new memories typically remains intact.

Encoding Failure

The inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory, often due to lack of attention or focus during the learning process.

Storage Decay

The gradual loss of information from long-term memory over time, often resulting from disuse or lack of retrieval.

Retrieval Failure

The inability to access information from long-term memory, often triggered by ineffective cues or interference from other memories.

Proactive Interference

Occurs when old memories hinder the retrieval of new information, making it difficult to learn new material.

Retroactive Interference

Happens when new information disrupts the recall of old memories, leading to forgetting previously learned material.

Motivated Forgeting

A psychological phenomenon where individuals consciously or unconsciously forget information due to its emotional significance, often to reduce anxiety or discomfort.

Repression

a defense mechanism that unconsciously prevents the recall of painful or disturbing memories.

Reconsolidation

The process by which previously consolidated memories are recalled and then stored again, potentially altering the original memory.

Misinformation Effect

The phenomenon where a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate due to the injection of misleading information after the event.

Imagination Inflation

the phenomenon where imagining an event increases confidence that it actually occurred, often leading to false memories.

Rosy Retrospection

the tendency to remember past events more positively than they were experienced at the time.

Source Amnesia

a memory error where the origin of a memory is forgotten, leading to confusion about where or how the memory was acquired.

Deja Vu

the sensation that an event has been experienced before, despite being a new situation.

Production Effect

the phenomenon where information is better remembered when it is produced aloud compared to when it is simply read.

Maintenance Rehersal

a memorization technique that involves repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about information to keep it in working memory.

Elaborate Rehersal

a memory enhancement technique that involves linking new information to existing knowledge and conceptually processing it for better retention.

Recency Effect

the tendency to better recall the last items in a sequence when presented with a list of items.

Primacy Effect

the tendency to better recall the first items in a sequence when presented with a list of items.

Infantile Amnesia

the inability to retrieve memories from early childhood, typically before the age of three.

Forgetting Curve

a graphical representation of how information is forgotten over time when there is no attempt to retain it, showing that memory retention decreases rapidly initially, then levels off.