Working-class values passed on through primary socialisation

Fatalism

The belief that individuals have little control over their lives or circumstances.

Immediate gratification

Emphasis on short-term pleasure as opposed to making sacrifices now in order to be rewarded in the future.

Present-time orientation

The belief that the present is more important than the future, leading to a lack of long-term plans.

Collectivism

Valuing being part of a group more than individual success.

Cycle of underachievement

A pattern where individuals disengage from education, believing they cannot improve their situation, leading to perpetuated disadvantage in the workplace.

Deferred gratification

The ability to make sacrifices now for a reward later, often seen in middle-class individuals.

Overemphasis on collective identity

A situation where personal growth and achievement are stunted due to prioritizing the group over individual success.

Lower educational achievement

The outcome often associated with present-time orientation and immediate gratification, particularly in lower socioeconomic backgrounds.

Middle-class individualism

The belief that individuals should work for their personal success rather than being constrained by group loyalties.