A & P test 4

cardiovascular system and respiratory system

cells = ?

hematocrit, cellular portion of blood

plasma = ?

fluid part of whole blood

serum = ? 

plasma without clotting factors

circulatory fluids and cells is divided into ___

plasma and cellular elements

Hematocrit

the percentage of blood volume occupied by cells

Plasma

an aqueous medium for transport of inorganic ions, gases, and organic solutes

plasma proteins are

the most plentiful organic solutes

lipoproteins

carry energy liquids (triglycerides) and structural lipids (phospholipids and cholesterol)

Plasma Characteristics

yellow, proteins, vitamins minerals nutrients waste, water and salts maintained by kidneys

plasma = % of blood

55

Erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes= % of blood

46

Erythrocytes

(red blood cells)- carry oxygen from lungs to tissue and carbon dioxide to lungs

Erythropoeisis 

is secreted from kidneys to stimulate red blood cell production

characteristics of red blood cells

• contain hemoglobin,

• oval shaped and biconcave,

• cannot reproduce or carry on extensive metabolic activities

• 7.5um in diameter

Hemopoietic Tissues

generate new erythrocytes (i.e. kidneys)

Spleens role in Erythropeisis

They remove old erythrocytes and stores healthy erythrocytes, platelets, and lymphocytes

Hemoglobin Characteristics

Beta globins, alpha globins, heme pigment, iron

Hemoglobin

Oxygen carrying compound that allows for transport of 60 times more oxygen than diffusion

Right Atrium

• low in oxygen high in CO2

• pumps blood through bicuspid valve into right ventricule

• passive return

• recieves blood from venous system

• cranial and caudal vena cava

Riight Ventricule.

• still low in oxygen and high in CO2

• pumps blood through right pulmonary semilunar valve

Left atrium

• blood returns from lung via pulmonary veins

• high in oxygen; low in CO2

• pumped through bicuspid or mitral valve into left ventricule

Left Ventricule

• high in oxygen; low in CO2

• blood pumped through the aortic semilunar valve into systemic blood supply

• via aorta

Systemic =

whole body

Endocardium

endothelial cells of inner lining of blood vessels and same as inner lining of heart

endothelial cells

form smooth lining inside blood vessels and heart (low friction)

large amount of elastic fibers

help move blood by rebound effects

smooth muscle contractions

constrict arteries causing decreased blood flow (controlled by ANS)

blood vessels

arteriole, capillaries, and venules/veins

Arteriole

• highly muscular

• little to no elastin

• regulate blood flow to capillary bed

capillaries

• single layer of endothelial cells

• groups called capillary beds

• site of gas, nutrient and waste exchange between body and circulatory system

venule and veins

• return vessels for moving blood back to heart

• contains valves at irregular intervals

• lowest pressure of any region of circulatory system

• true veins - vena cava

Hemoglobin Features

• oxygen carrying compound of RBC

• allows for transport of 60 times more oxygen than same amount of water

• can exist in a number of forms depending on oxygen state Fe2+ :)

iron can attach to how many hemoglobins?

1

Hemoglobin Danger

can bind to CO2 easier than oxygen (higher affinity) carboxyhemoglobin

100 mL of blood = 

14g Hb

Each gram can transport

1.34ml of O2

100 mL of blood carries

20mL of O2

Methemoglobin

When iron is at an Fe3+ state and wont carry O2. Relates to Nitrate Poisoning

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

Fe2+ binds to CO 200 times greater affinity than O2. Carboxyhemoglobin

Prussic Acid Poisoning

HCN Blocks use of O2 at mitochondria stoping production of ATP. produced by johnson grass

Erythropoiesis

The formation of new RBC

• life-span 110-120days

• constant production and destruction

• takes 5 days from beginning of production

• comes from bone marrow

• stimulated from need for oxygen

Control of Erythropoiesis

1. Kidneys detect low O2 levels in blood

2. When less O2 is delivered to kidney, they secrete erythropeitin into blood

3. EPO stimulates erythropoeisis by bone marrow

4. additional circulating erythrocytes increase O2 carrying blood cells

5. increased O2 carrying capacity relieves initial stimulus triggered, relief

RBC Production

1. Stem cell: hemocytoblast

2. Committed cell: proerythroblast

3. Phase 1 -Developmental pathway: Early Erythroblast ribosomal synthesis

4. Phase 2 - Hemoglobin Accumulation: late erythroblast

5. Phase 2: normoblast

6. Phase 3: Ejection of Nucleus from normoblast to reticulocyte

7. Erythrocyte

Reticulocyte

immature blood cell

how many RBC made per day?

2-3 million

Hypoxia

low blood O2

Low O2

increase in renal erythropoietic factor

Anemia

removal of kidney

intrinsic factor (carrier protein)

made by stomach mucosal cell to increase vitamin B12 uptake

Vit B12

• essential to RBC production

• contains Cobalt

pernicious anemia

insufficient amounts of any of the 3

• Vit B12

• intrinsic factor

• cobalt

Anemia

low iron from blood loss or dietary intake

Destruction of RBC

macrophages, globulin splitting, iron attachment to transferin

Transferin

a plasma protein

Aged RBC are destroyed by macrophages where? 

The kidney, spleen and red bone marrow

How are RBC’s destroyed?

Theyre weeded out when passing through smaller capillaries that cause weak membranes to burst. 

What cleans out the busted RBC?

White blood cells

in destruction of RBC what happens to the globulin molecules?

they are split apart into amino acids and iron that are reused

in destruction of RBC what happens with iron?

it attaches to transferrin and taken back into the bone marrow to be reused

Hemolysis

the breaking of heme pigment

Breaking down of Heme 

? → ? → ?    

biliverdin “green” non iron pigment converted to bile → bilirubin “yellow”  converted to yellow → urobilinogen (stercobilinigen) feces “brown” 

What happens after the biliruben is transported to the liver?

the body converts it to urobilinogen that it then absorbs in blood

Stercobilinogen

feces in form of brown pigment

Excess Hemolysis

Hb released into plasma that shouldnt happen

Hemoglobinemia

Hb in blood plasma

Hemoglobinuria

Hb in urine

Types of hemoglobinurea

leptosporosis, mosquito born viruses, cu poisoning

leptosorosis

cause of late term abortions, baby dies of asphyxia

mosquito borne viruses 

malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever

Cu poisoning

will destroy red blood cells ex. Cu for cow different from sheep

Blood Type determined by

occurence or abscence of recognition markers on the surface of RBC

Type O

no a or b marker (universal donor)

Type AB

both markers (Universal recipient)

Rh Factor

Rh antigen can have either Rh positive or Rh negative

Erythroblastosis Fetalis

• mother inherits Rh- and father is Rh+

• Fetus inherits Rh+ from father = mother makes antigens against Rh factor and “attack” babies RBCs

• happens at birth

White Blood Cells AKA Leukocytes

• about 1% of blood

• nucleated

• do not contain hemoglobin

• primary defense against invaders

• produce antibodies

• several varieties of WBC

• lifespan 18 - 36 hours

Types of WBC’s

Granular Leukocytes and Agranular Leukocytes

Granular Leokocytes

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

neutrophils

• most numerous

• stored in bone marrow

• leave bloodstream and collect at points of pathogen invasion (diapadesis)

• 1st line of defense

• highly phagocytic

• 1:1 kill ratio, 1 bacteria for one neutrophils

Eosinophil

• not as phagocytic

• not many

• diapedisis

• increase with parasitic infections

Basophils

• very rare

• makes histamin, heparin, seratonin

Agranular Leuolocytes

Lymphoctes and monocytes

Monocytes

• very similar to neutrophils in action

• become macrophages

• phagocytic

• kill ration 25:1, 25 monocytes to 1 bacteria

• slow but larger in numbers

Lymphocyes

• not phagocytic-

• b cells and t cells

• t cells help b cells recognize foreign antibodies

Platelets

Also known as thrombocytes, come from megakaryocytes that splinter apart

Factors of Platelets

• smallest cells in blood

• single purpose = start the process of coagulation

• release messenger into the blood

• lifespan 7 to 10 days

Process of coagulation

1. constrict blood vessels

2. attract more platelets

3. initiate work of plasma based clotting fibers 

Fibrogen

plasma-clotting fibers from fibrous mesh

Things needed to cause clotting

1. calcium

2. plasma proteins: fibrinogen and prothrombrin

3. platelets

Plasma Proteins

prothrombrin and fibronogen

Clotting

1. Formation of thrombroplastin (from platelets)

2. conversion of prothrombrin(plasma protein) into thrombrin (enzyme)

3. conversion of fibrinogen (plasma protein) into fibrin. This process catalyzed by thrombrin

4. fibrin forms the threads of the clot 

Healing process

1. Fibrinolysin (broken down by fibrin) produced by most cells in body

2. tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) produced by endothelial cells during injury.

3. Plasminogen (tPA) natural compound that begins to breakdown clot

Heart attacks caused by clots can be reversed by what?

Tissue Plasminogen Activator (tPA), a medication that helps dissolve clots.

Simplified Coagulation Cascade

A series of processes involving clotting factors that lead to the formation of a fibrin clot in response to vascular injury.

Phlebitis

inflamation of blood vessels

Thrombus

clot that is necessary

Asprin

PG antagonist, prevents platelets from adhering

Fibrin

makes “mesh work” that catches RBC and stops flow of blood

Anemia

abnormally low RBC or low levels of hemoglobin

Sickle-Cell Anemia

abnormal strands of hemoglobin in sickle shape, genetic disease most common in persons of african ancestory