Chapter 3: The Criminology of Computer Crime

criminological theory

science of looking at what causes crime

correlation vs causation

correlation

-the relationship between two measurements or behaviors that tend to move in the same direction

causation

-a relationship where one variable causes a change in another

theory

an explanation that is based on observation, experimentation and reasoning

hypothesis

a possible explanation for an observed occurrence that can be tested by further investigation

scientific theory

a set of interrelated and interdependent propositions designed to predict a given phenomenon

proposition

a statement of a relationship between two variables

-if A predicts B,

and B predicts C, then A is related to C

"I propose that..."

theories of individual involvement in cybercrime

a criminological theory predicts either individual behavior or rates of behavior

-rational choice

-routine activities

-deterrence

-frustration-aggression

rate of behavior

typically refers to a number of cases for every 100,000 persons in the general population

choice theory

wrongdoers weigh the possible benefits of criminal activity against the expected costs of being

-emphasizes free will

*weighing benefits of a crime vs the costs

**one of 1st attempts to understand crime

routine activities theory

based on rational choice theory

-crime occurs when there is a convergence in time and space of 3 factors

1. a motivated offender

2. a suitable target

3. absence of a capable guardian (nobody around to interrupt the crime)

deterrence theory

based on rational choice theory

-offenders choose to commit crime based on the perceived risks and benefits of committing the criminal act

-2 kinds: general and specific

-sanctions must be swift, certain, and severe

general deterrence vs specific deterrence

general deterrence

-deters EVERYBODY from committing a crime

example: seeing man gets 7 years for bank robbery

specific deterrence

-designed to decrease chances of a given offender from committing the crime again (recidivism)

Dollard et al. frustration-aggression hypothesis

frustration always leads to aggression

moral development theory

category of psychological theories

-the moral beliefs of criminals and non-criminals are different

-takes a cognitive developmental approach

Kohlberg's 6 stages of moral development

1. punishment and obedience stage

2. hedonistic orientation stage

3. interpersonal concordance stage

4. law and order orientation stage

5. social contract, legalistic stage

6. orientation to universal ethical principles stage

personality disorders

argues that certain personality characteristics may influence crime, including....

-extroversion

-impulsivity

-lack of self control

-assertiveness

[See Page 55]

most common personality disorders

-psychopath

-sociopath

[See Page 55]

anti-social personality

-egocentrism

-lack of concern for others

-self-esteem derived from dominance

-deceitfulness

-impulsivity

-risk-taker

[See Page 55]

sociopathic personality

-amoral

-aggressive

-impulsive

-highly manipulative

-little or no guilt

-pathological liar

-unable to form bonds of affection with another human being

Gottfredson and Hirschi: General Theory of Crime

-low self control is the one predictor of ALL crime

-physical rather than mental (doing instead of thinking)

-impulsive, risk-taker

-inability to deter gratification

-insensitive to suffering of others (ex. murder)

Agnew-Strain Theory

negative social relations leads to negative affective states which leads to criminal activity

*#1 cause of suicide is a disruption in social relations

[See Page 58]

negative social relations

-failure to achieve positive goal

-disjunction between expectation and outcome

-loss of valued relationship (friend, job, etc)

-conflict in interpersonal relations (familial, job, etc)

negative affective states

-anger

-frustration

-disappointment

-depression/anxiety

rates of cybercrime

a social structure/social class theory

-crime is the result of frustration felt by individuals who cannot reach their financial and personal goals through legitimate means

*Main theorists: Merton, Agnew-Strain

Merton

anomie and social structure

anomie

defined as a disjunction between institutionalized means and culturally approved goals in society

Merton's 5 modes of adaptation (Strain theory)

1. conformity

2. ritualism

3. innovation

4. retreatism

5. rebellion

conformity

-most common mode of adjustment

-accept the goals and modes to get there

ritualism

give up on the societal goals but not the approved means of achieving them

rebellion

challenge approved goals and advocate an alternative set of goals

innovation

accept the goals but may use illegal means to get there since legal means dont work

retreatism

abandon approved goals and the approved means of achieving them

learning theory

a social process theory

-people who commit crime because they learn the necessary attitudes, skills, and rationalizations

-crime= a learned behavior from interacting with parents, peers, and others

*people are NOT born criminals

Sutherland-Differential Association theory

an integration of learning and sub-cultural theory

-criminal behavior is LEARNED, in the process of interaction in primary groups

-learning involves: crime techniques, motives, and rationalizations

-who you spend your time with influences your behavior

-we can predict criminal behavior based on your associations with other ppl

*criminal behavior is not explained by general needs and values because they also explain non-criminal behavior

Differential association theory believes that the process of learning to commit a crime is the same as learning...

non-criminal behaviors

Edwin Sutherland

differential association theory

"the father of modern criminology"

Akers' Social Learning Theory

attempts to explain how behavior is learned

-grounded in 4 principle components

1. differential association (interactions with ppl who advocate criminal behavior)

2. definitions (attitudes toward criminal behavior...morality, harmful, etc)

3. differential reinforcement (balance between rewards and punishments)

4. imitation (repeating the criminal behavior of others)

imitation

we tend to imitate people we think are of a higher status than ourselves

*this is true in every work field

neutralization/drift theory

a type of learning theory

-argues that most criminals hold conventional values, norms, and beliefs, but must learn to neutralize these values before committing crime

-drift between criminal and non-criminal behavior

*how do criminals neutralize their guilt/adapt their behavior

SYkes and Matza techniques of neutralization

-denial of responsibility

-denial of injury

-denial of victim

-condemn the condemners

-appeal to higher authority

subcultural theories

criminals hold values, norms, and beliefs that are in opposition to those held in the dominant culture

Anderson code of the street

to survive "on the street" a person must have respect

-respect is fragile....lost easily but difficult to recover

*without respect, you are a potential victim

Wolfgang and Ferracuti- subculture of violence

characterized by a willingness to resort to violence to settle a dispute

-reject the use of a third party to mediate a conflict

Cohen-Status frustration

the inability of marginal persons to attain academic, economic, or political status

*lower class boys experience status frustration in middle-class schools

social control theory

seeks to answer the question "why dont individuals commit crime?"

the answer: lies in the strength of one's ties to conventional individuals and society (self-control theory)

space transitions theory

argues that people behave different online than they would in physical space

-believes we need new theory to explain cyber crime