Intro to criminology - Chapter 2: Typologies and patterns of crime

Typology

A classification or organizational method used to categorize crime.

Classification in the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR)

• Utilizes categories including:

  • Violent Crime

  • Property Crime

  • Other Crimes

  • Traffic Offences

  • Federal Drug Offences

  • Other Federal Law Violations

Deviance

Refers to behaviours that depart from or violate social norms; these behaviours may not be criminal offences, but may be criminalized in the future

Street crime/blue-collar crime

Involves direct harm to individuals

White collar crime

Non-violent, financial malfeasance for one’s own benefit.

Dark figure

Crimes that go unseen or unreported

Homicide

An umbrella term that refers to one human killing another, while murder is a specific type of intentional homicide

The three levels of murder (determined by culpability)

1. First Degree Murder (planned and deliberate murder)

2. Second Degree Murder (intentional, but not planned)

3. Manslaughter. (Completely unintentional)

Homicide statistics

• In 2019, the homicide rate was reported at 1.8 per 100,000 population, significantly lower than rates from the last 30 years.

• The rate for Indigenous peoples was 6.5 times higher compared to the general population.

Homicide statistics (con’t)

Homicide occurrences were especially high in Western provinces, with potential factors including:

• Weather conditions

• Variations in reporting standards.

Serial murder

Statistically rare events when a person kills several victims in three or more separate events,

e.g. MMIWG (Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls).

Mass murder

The killing of more than 3 people in a single event; is also very rare

e.g. A mass shooting

The three levels of sexual assault

• Level 1: Minor seriousness, unwanted touching or fondling.

• Level 2: Involving weapons or bodily harm.

• Level 3: Severe cases resulting in long-term physical injuries e.g. Maiming, wounding, disfigurement

Reporting rates of sexual assault

The police-reported sexual assault rate in 2019 was 82 per 100,000 population, a decrease from the peak of 120 per 100,000 in 1993.

Reasons for not reporting sexual assault

• Feelings of shame and guilt

• The offender is known to the victim

• Fear of public scrutiny

• Concerns about not being taken seriously by the criminal justice system.

Three levels of assault

• Level 1: Minor assaults like punching or shoving, with no bodily harm necessary. (500 per 100,000 population in 2019)

• Level 2: Assault with a weapon or causing bodily harm. (158 per 100,000 population in 2019)

• Level 3: Aggravated assault, where the offender causes serious injury or maiming. (e.g. a black eye) (10 per 100,000 population in 2019)

Robbery

Involves force or threats of violence during theft; they occur against people, not objects

Robbery (con’t)

Mostly occur late at night and in urban areas

The two robbing categories

1. Commercial Robbers: More strategic and planned with less impulse

2. Street Robbers: More impulsive and opportunistic.

Break & enter

Unauthorized entry into property intending to commit an indictable offence. (e.g. theft, destruction of property)

Break & enter statistics

The rate was 429 per 100,000 population in 2019

Burglary characteristics

• Most occur when homes are unoccupied, predominantly in summer months.

  • Burglars seek out unoccupied homes

• Predominantly in middle-upper-class neighbourhoods lacking security but with valuable possessions.

The categories of theft

• 1. Theft under $5000: Rate of 1,129 per 100,000 in 2019. (minor theft)

• 2. Theft over $5000: Rate of 57 per 100,000 in 2019. (major theft)

Women and theft

Women make up a large percentage of theft cases at 33% compared to other crimes

The categories of theft (con’t)

Motor Vehicle Theft, with a rate of 232 per 100,000 in 2019.

Fraud

Involves deception for material gain e.g. Using someone else’s credit card, telemarking scams

Statistics of fraud

It had a rate of 378 per 100,000 in 2019.

Identity theft

When a person steals another person’s identity with the intention of committing an indictable offence that includes fraud or falsehood

e.g. Mail theft, data breach

Identity fraud

When an offender takes a person’s personal information and uses it to make purchases in that person’s name or evade law enforcement through use of their identity (e.g., Credit card information)

Prostitution

Exchanging sex for money, which was practically legal historically, but illegal to communicate in Canada.

The Protection of Communities and Exploited Persons Act (2014)

Rendered purchasing sexual services illegal, with most public aspects of prostitution remaining illicit.

Prostitution statistics

Reported incidences of prostitution were 135 in 2019, coupled with an extensive dark figure of crime.

Prostitution statistics (con’t)

They’re hard to obtain due to low reporting rates and inconsistent law enforcement.

Drug use

A real, and well-known correlation between drug use and crime is present

The effects of drug prohibition and criminalization

• Under drug prohibition, there is more widespread use among youth and newer drugs have become more potent, exacerbating police-community relations.

• Drug criminalisation has been proven to be an ineffective method for controlling or preventing drug use, and instead worsens those issues

The effects of drugs being legalized

• No rise in drug use, overdoses, mental illness, or crime;

• Declines in addiction and overdose rates in some areas.

• No increases in youth cannabis use observed

Organized crime

A group of three or more individuals whose aim is to commit serious offences resulting in material or financial benefit.

What do organized crime groups tend to exhibit?

• High internal structure and organization.

• Illegal activities, notably:

  • Drug and gun trafficking.

  • Human trafficking and cybercrimes which have emerged recently as significant issues.

  • A trend towards diverse and multi-ethnic organized crime groups.

Hate crimes

Inciting or promoting hatred against a race or ethnicity, religion, or sexual orientation of a person or group through public statements; does not cover private discussions

Statistics for hate crimes

• The reported incident rate for hate crimes in 2019 was 1,946 incidents per 100,000.

  • 876 of these were directed at race or ethnicity,

  • 608 involved religion

  • 263 targeted the victim’s sexual orientation (Statistics Canada, 2020)

Statistics for hate crimes (con’t)

They aren’t easily classified as violent or non-violent because hate crimes may be statements, while in other cases, judges may decide that hateful statements that precede physically violent incidents are aggravating factors

Reasons for the increase of hate crimes

• Global events like 9/11

• Comments from high political figures targeted toward certain groups

Influencing factors for crime patterns

• Changing family dynamics

• Political and social unrest

• Technological innovations, particularly the internet

• Unoccupied homes

Influencing factors for crime patterns (con’t)

• Gun control laws

• Access to abortion and birth control

• Environmental policies concerning lead

• COVID-19 pandemic.

Indigenous peoples’ representation in the criminal justice system

Indigenous peoples have representation due to the numerous challenges they faced in the past

Indigenous peoples’ representation in the criminal justice system (con’t)

Indigenous youth receive longer sentences and a lack of effective rehab programs