ENGLISH LANGUAGE TERMINOLGY

Noun

Words that names a person, place or thing

Adjective

Words that are used to describe nouns

Verb

Words that express an action or a state of being

Adverb

Words that modify, qualify or give us more information about verbs or adjectives

Prepositions

Words that describe the relationship between a noun and a pronoun or another noun. Often indicating the physical location (position) of a thing

Conjunctions

Words used to join together words, phrases, clauses or sentences

Determiners

Words that describe the number, owner or familiarity of the noun

Interjections

Words that are used to express delight, surprise or other emotions. Express a strong emotion or a reaction. They stand alone and can be inserted into sentences, usually separated by a comma or an exclamation point

Pronouns

Words that are used in place of nouns

Etymology

The study of the origin of words and how their meanings have changed in history

Word

One or more sounds or letters used to communicate something

Lexis/ Lexicon

The collective words of a language

Lexeme

A minimal meaningful unit of language . This can be in the form of singular words or a whole phrase

Familect

Words and phrases used just by a family

Semantics

The analysis of word meanings and the relations between them

Lexis and Semantics

Words and their meanings

Neologisms

It is the introduction of new words or giving new meanings to existing words.

Can be in the form of - borrowing/loan words, compounding (home+work= homework), blending (yogalates), abbreviations, onomatopoeia or acronyms

Coinage

Invention of a new word or phrase

Denotation

Literal meaning of a word - primary meaning

Connotation

What links to a word, a feeling, theme or emotion - what it makes you think of. An idea or feeling which a word invokes for a person in addition to its literal or primary meaning

Figurative devices

Metaphor, Simile, Symbolism, Pathetic Fallacy, Personification, Sibilance etc

Discourse

Written or spoken communication or debate

Pragmatics

The study of meaning in context. This could be both the implied and literal meanings in the context of the discourse

Pragmatic Particles

Words, phrases or methods used to fill gaps in discourse

Idiom/Idiomatic Phrase

A group of words established as having a common meaning that doesn’t relate to the literal meaning of the words. Single words or [phrases can be used in place of more substantial ones in certain contexts

Sociolinguistic Factors

Refers to the various social influences that affect language use and variation eg age, gender, power, social class, race etc

Personal Identity

Personal identity traits reflect aspects of a person’s character that is specific to them - what make them unique/ different from those around them

Appearance, personality, hobbies/interest, beliefs/morals/ethics, feelings, talent etc

Social Identity

Social identity traits reflect aspects of a person’s character that can be categorised or grouped by society - what makes them similar to those around them

Gender, ethnicity, age, occupation, religion, power, social class, religion, education

Mode

The type of communication - written, spoken, multimodal (elements of both spoken and written) and the type of text - newspaper article, advert, conversation, text message etc

Audience

The relationship between the writer/speaker and the reader/listener - (how do they know each other, if at all?) and how the writer/speaker us language to engage their audience

Field

The subject matter/topic - what is the text actually about?

Function

What is the purpose of the text? - to inform, instruct, describe, explain, advise, entertain etc. Is there more than one function? If so what is the primary, secondary, tertiary function?

Register

The tone/formality/style - eg formal or informal

Typical Qualities of WRITTEN mode -

Permanent, standard English, formal, content independent, low interaction, message orientated - transactional

Typical Qualities of SPOKEN mode -

Ephemeral, non-standard English, informal, content dependent, high interaction, socially orientated - interactional

Rhetoric

The art of effective or persuasive speaking or written language designed to have a persuasive or impressive effect but which is often regarded as lacking in sincerity or meaningful content 

Aristotle’s Modes or Persuasion:Logos

Appeal to Logic

Aristotle’s Modes or Persuasion: Pathos

Appeal to Emotion

Aristotle’s Modes or Persuasion: Ethos

Appeal to Character

Persuasive Approaches Examples:

Bargaining, Bribery, Guilt-tripping, Reasons (details and specifics), Peer Pressure - social influences

Instrumental Power + example

The power used by people or groups to exert hierarchal authority over others eg Police officer over a civilian

Influential Power

The power used by people to persuade or influence other, rather than using any actual authority. Everyone can exert influential power through language

Power and its categorisation - 

The ability or capacity to direct or influence the behaviour of others or the course of events - this can be in the form of political/legal influence, social influence, individuals thoughts and behaviours.

Power can be considered to be both a personal and social identity trait dependent on the context, most often in the context of wider society.

Norman Fairclough’s argument over power relations and why we need to recognise them

He argues that language maintains and changes power relations in modern society. He suggests that analysing language can reflect these processes and enables people to become more conscious of them and more able to resist and change them.

Power in Discourse

The ways in which the language used in the discourse exerts/enforces/exercises power

Power behind Discourse

The context that enables the language used in the discourse to exert/enforce/exercise power - links to status, hierarchy, authority and role

Asymmetrical Power 

A situation in which it is clear that the power status of one/some of the participants in higher or lower than others

Unequal Encounter

A situation in which there is a power asymmetry with some participants more or less powerful than others.

Polysyllabic Lexis

Words with many syllables

Low-Frequency Lexis

Vocabulary that you don’t use very often

Synthetic Personalisation

A theory by Norman Fairclough - the process of addressing mass audiences as though they are individuals through the use of welcoming and inclusive language.

‘Synthetic’ - artificially created to imitate nature

‘Personalisation’ - The action of producing something to meet an individuals requierments

Techniques to achieve Synthetic Personalisation

1. The use of Inclusive Pronouns - ‘we’ ‘us’ etc

2. The use of Direct Address - ‘you’ second person pronoun - and rhetorical questions to make the audience feel targeted and involved

3. Adopting a more personal or informal tone, often addressing the audience with colloquialisms and humour

When is Synthetic Personalisation used?

Synthetic Personalisation is frequently used in politics but more predominantly in advertising. Analysing the linguistic devices - pronouns and presuppositions - to construct a stimulated relationship between the producer and the receiver

Presuppositions

Supposed judgements or assumptions

Para social Friendships

One sided bond, with friendship, that is non-reciprocal. Imaginary relationship between media user/celebrity and viewer

Moral Authority

Authority that is based on principles or fundamental truths which are independent of moral laws. Relates to Orthodoxy and links to normative behaviours in society.

Orthodoxy

Generally accepted ideas, beliefs or attitudes

Normative Behaviours

Societal expectations

Ideology

The belief system - set of values - that people or groups hold. Understanding the relevant ideology of the text producers and receivers helps us to understand how and why power is exerted. It can reveal why specific language choices are made that might ‘position’ audiences to accept certain ideologies

Standfirst

Functions to persuade the reader - transactional (instruct)

Does so using imperative verbs or commands eg ‘cook this tasty meal’

Electronic Mode

Refers to any communication using or based on a system of electronic media - eg voice notes, messages, social media etc

Electronic Media

Any media that require electronics to access content eg video and audio recording, online content etc

Static Media

Any print media that does not require electronics to access content eg printed newspapers, magazines

Digital Native

Someone who was born into the technological, electronic, media age

Digital Immigrant

Somone who has migrated into the digital world

Electronic Age

This began when the use of electronic equipment including computers first came into use

Paralinguistic Features

Aspects of spoken communication that don’t involve words. These may add emphasis or shades of meaning to what is being said

eg body language, facial expressions, laughter etc

Prosodic Features

Features that appear when we put sounds together in connected speech. Successful communication is dependent on these features

eg intonation, pace, pitch, rhythm, stress etc

Non-Fluency Features

Features that disrupt the flow of speech including mistakes and corrections

eg voiced pauses, pauses, self-corrections, fillers, false starts

Scripted

Speech is entirely prepared in advance and usually written out previously, sometimes spontaniety markers are included to make scripted conversation appear less scripted than it is

eg speeches, dialogue

Partially-scripted

Speech that is partially prepared in advance with a few elements written down previously, but inludes some elements of spontaniety

eg interview, tours etc

Non-scriped Spontaneous

Speech that is not prepared in advance and is spontaneous. This is often informal but not always.

eg general conversation, improvisations etc

Socialisation

The process by which individuals aquire the knowledge, social skills, language and values to conform to the norms and rules required for integration into a group or community.

Gender Construction

The way in which gender is constructed in areas such as the media - eg magazines, adverts, books etc

There is an argument that this many reinforce gender stereotypes and our percieved ideas about male/female roles

This is because the media - particularly adverts and magazines - present an ideal reader image - an image to which the audience aspire. Conversely, this may actually challenge stereotypical attitudes.

Sex

Referring to the biological aspects of an individual based on anatomy, hormones and chromosomes.

Generally male and female

Something assigned to someone at birth based on physical characteristics

Gender

A social construction referring to the behaviours and attributes based on labels of femininity and masculinity. Gender identity is a personal, internal perception of oneself and so the gender someone identifies with may not match the sex they were assigned at birth

Non-binary, transgender, male, female etc