Early Europe 2

king Alfred

(848-899) King of Wessex from 871-886 and Anglo-Saxons from 886-death. defeated invading Danes in 878, and extends his authority both north and east, marrying his daughter to the Mercian king in the north. Alfred issued a far-reaching law code, systematized military recruitment, assembled a navy, and built defensive strongholds throughout his lands, which provided protective walls for artisans and merchants to trade, enhancing commercialism. Alfred also contributed to the translation into Old English of works of Boethius, Pope Gregory, and Bede, as well as ordering the preservation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. By the 990s, almost all of Britain south of the Firth of Forth was in the hands of Alfred’s successors, and the kings of Wessex had become the kings of England.

The Capetian Dynasty

began in 987 under Hugh Capet. Was a very weak dynasty at the beginning; a capetian monarch was only one prince among many in the land since France consisted of a collection of counties and duchies rather than one kingdom. as rulers continued over the next few generations, the kingdom grew more centralized, expanded, and royal authority and legal institutions were established. Hugh Capet→Philip ii Augustus→St.Louis ix→Philip iv the fair→

Ottonian Dynasty

began in 919 named after three German kings. Before there were dukes to survive the collapse of central authority, and all of them want the title as king. Henry “the fowler” of Saxony was chosen as king in 919, and his son and grandsons are all named Otto.

Agricultural Revolution

Climate change between 800 and 1300 brought warmth and less rain to Europe, improving crop yields and extending the growing season. Peasants used the opportunity of more crops to trade and purchase tools, clothes, and other goods which they previously had to make themselves. Nobles and knights also transitioned from drab buildings to lavish castles with troubadours. more land was cleared and cultivated for farmland, and the three-field system of crop rotation was introduced, since fertilizer was scarce. The heavy wheeled plow became more common in the north, as well as the use of windmills and watermills. Population doubled during this time.

Manorialism

Economic and agricultural system in which a lord or lady, a bishop, or a monastery would own a manor of land and slaves, free peasants, or serfs would work the land. Tenements were rented out to peasants which they could use to grow food for their own households, and labored on the demesne (produce owned by lord or lady) to pay their rent. Most manors had jurisdictional powers attached, so the owner of the manor was able to issue regulations, judge disputes, punish crimes, and otherwise wield public authority. The lord or lady was also expected to protect the tenants.

Pope Gregory 7

Originally Hildebrand who named himself Pope Gregory after becoming pope in 1075. Attacked the church custom of lay vestiture which threatened the authority of every ruler in western christendom. He believed that emperors had no power to appoint bishops, and excommunicated Henry iv after recieving a defiant letter from Henry which challenged Gregory’s right to papacy. Henry humbled himself and asked for forgiveness at Canossa which Gregory granted, but then Henry invaded and appointed a different pope, Gregory viii. Gregory vii died in 1085 in exile.

Gregorian Reform

initiated by Gregory vii. Reformers began selected popes, removing imperial influence when Henry iii died as well as his last papal appointee. in 1056, the papal election decree was issued, stating that the pope would be chosen by cardinals. Priestly celibacy was also more strictly enforced to keep the priests more focused on parochial duties rather than outside society. Lastly, the papacy gained control of the entire hierarchy of ecclesiastical appointments.

emperor Henry 4

(1050-1106) Henry becomes Emperor of Holy Roman Empire as a child. When grown, he disagrees with Gregory’s ideals about excluding emperors from papal decision, so he attempts to depose Gregory vii and is excommunicated. After humbling himself before Gregory, he re-launches the effort once more, succeeding in kicking Gregory out this time. In 1122, Henry and Pope Calixtus ii reach a compromise with the Concordat of Worms.

The investiture controversy

conflict between popes and emperors in 1075-1122 about who gets to appoint popes, bishops, and Abbots.

the concordat of worms

a compromise between pope Calixtus ii and Henry iv signed in 1122, ending the investiture controversy where it was agreed that popes get to appoint bishops and other churchmen, and emperors get to invest them with secular authority as well as overseeing the final decision at an event of dispute.

Emperor Fredrick I “Barbarossa”

1152-1190. The “Holy Roman Empire” title is put forth under him. Frederick wants to control Lombard regions for taxation, and becomes opponent to pope Alexander iii. Frederick also ends up appointing fake popes including Victor iv and Paschal iii to advance political authority against the church. To prevent Frederick from conquering, Alexander unites the common towns of Lombardy to fight together against Frederick. Eventually, Frederick makes up with Alexander during the 3rd Laterin Council in 1179. Frederick dies during third crusade.

The Reconquista

The islamic state of the Iberian peninsula begins to crumble from within, and Castilian warriors take advantage of that by conquering Toledo in 1015. The kings of castle begin portraying themselves as Christian conquerors taking back what was rightfully theirs, and were very successful in the re-conquest, ending islamic rule in Spain.

Robert Guiscard

1015-1085. Part of a group of mercenaries from Normandy that come to Sicily to make themselves kings of no-mans-land area and expand from there. The pope sends warriors to defeat the mercenaries but is unsuccessful, so pope resides to giving over southern Italy to these normans in the Treaty of Melfi. The Normans end up kicking byzantines out of southern Italy and Roger ii is made “king of two sicilies.”

pope Urban ii

addresses bishops at Council of Clemont in 1095 according to Fulcher of Chartres. This council was about sending soldiers to help fight Seljuk turks attempting to conquer byzantine neighbors, encouraging people to be “soldiers of Christ.” Also advances Gregorian reforms, and rebuilds papal administration into a functioning bureaucracy.

first crusade

Council of Clemont call was successful in sending many to fight, mainly common people, not to Constantinople however, but to conquer the holy land. the warriors win the battle of Antioch and storm Jerusalem, massacring many along the way (1099). Crusader states such as Edessa and Tripoli are established, and this marks the beginning of the crusades.

fourth crusade

Pope Innocent iii calls this crusade- not wanting kings in control of crusades. The foot soldiers make contract with the Venetians to sail to the holy land. The crusaders can’t pay their side of the contract however, so the Venetians have them help conquer a Christian city previously taken from the Venetians, which sparks widespread chaos. The crusaders then sack Constantinople in 1261, essentially destroying the society, and soon begin to lose grasp of the holy land.

King William “The Conqueror” of England

1066-1087. French Norman duke who defeated the Harold Godwinson (Anglo Saxon) in England at Battle of Hastings in 1066. Remained Duke of Normandy as well as king of England, and while ruler, he maintained Anglo-Saxon institutes but dispossessed old aristocracy, imposing new Norman, French-speaking “colonial” ruling class.

Henry ii of England

(1154-1189). Married Eleanor of Aquitaine after annulment with Louis vii, a vassal to Louis vii in theory but Henry is more powerful. The book From Memory to Written Record included details about Henry’s reign, such as the development of the exchequer and judicial innovation (traveling royal judges, local juries, standardized writs, and effective justice). This period also contains the development of the English Common Law, which essentially was justices making laws and letters were sent around England regarding these laws. Henry was also known for his conflict with Thomas Beckett.

king Louis 6 of France

1108-1137. known as a mediocre man with an intelligent wife, not having much power in the beginning. Under his rule, He took control of Ile-de-France, castle by castle, he established first baillis (new royal officials), and allies with the papcy and with local bishops and abbots, one of these abbots named Suger of St. Denis wrote “Influential life of Louis the Fat” in order to gain more favor with the kings of France.

Louis 7 of France

Marries heiress Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1137, hence becoming Duke of Aquitaine, until annulment in 1152. He leads the second crusade to regain lost land including the holy land. His vassal is Henry ii, who is more powerful than Louis. he tried to get Henry’s sons to rebel against their father, but this did not work.

Eleanor of Aquitaine

heiress who marries Louis vii and accompanies him on the second crusade before their annulment. She then marries Henry ii, mothering Richard the Lionheart.

Peter Abelard

1079-1142. Abelard came to Paris University at 20 and becomes one of the best students, later becoming a great logician. Upon leaving Paris, Abelard challenges a famous theologian at a French town (shown in his book of “calamities”). Later on, he starts teaching in the Paris cathedral and soon becomes a tutor to Heloise, a gifted girl whose uncle wanted her educated, whom he gets pregnant and marries her in secret although word gets out anyways. Abelard convinces Heloise to retreat to a monastery to become an abbess, which he gets castrated for by Heloise’s uncle. Abelard then becomes a monk, and Bernard of Clairvaux does not approve of Abelard’s works on logic, getting these works condemned. Abelard ends up having to flee, and spends the rest of his days at a monastery. Abelards “Sic et non” demonstrates the approach of scholasticism.

Heloise

1142-1164. Was educated by nuns in her early life and had a passion for reading and writing. Women were not allowed to attend university, so her uncle sent for Peter Abelard to tutor her privately. Abelarde got Heloise pregnant so married her in secret. Her uncle hated the situation and hired thugs to castrate Abelarde, thus separating Heloise and Abelard, both taking monastic vows. As a nun, Heloise continued her interest in philosophy, writing about pure love, which shaped Abelards later writings. She was renowned throughout Europe as very intelligent and skilled in secular learning.

St. Bernard of Clairvaux

1090-1153. Joined community of citeaux in 1112 and later became the founder and abbot of Clairvaux. He was a very admired theologian of his day, and important figure in the cistercian order (Gregorian claims, Vita apostolica, new heresies), having a great moral influence to even inducing the king of France and German emperor to participate in the second crusade. He opposed Abelard’s rationalism, instead advocating for pure faith and love as the best ways to approach God. Although many philosophers and theologians at the time still disagreed with him, preferring Abelard’s way of thinking, he still succeeded in getting Abelard’s works condemned.

Pope Innocent iii

1198-1216. The first pope educated in theology at Paris University and the caller of the 4th crusade. He summoned the fourth laterin council which assigned ecclesiastical rules including clerical dress and the maintenance of schools by bishops. Innocent also negotiates with Waldes followers, allowing them into the church and to do basic preaching. Innocent has a conflict with King John, disagreeing over the appointment of an archbishop of Canterbury. Innocent backed a French invasion of England so King John would cave and assigned Innocent’s chosen man as the Archbishop of Canterbury. Innocent also disapproved of King Philip ii Augustus’s marital behavior, excommunicating him. During a conflict between Otto of Brunswick and Frederick’s family (son of Constance the heir to Sicily and Henry vi) for control of the empire, Innocent first supports Otto but then turns to Frederick when Otto announces his goal to conquer Italy.

St. Francis of Assisi

1181-1226. Is the son of an Italian merchant who is inspired by vita apostolica. Earlier, he becomes quite knight and POW for a year, and when he returns home he insists on the apostolica lifestyle, committing to poverty and constantly giving possessions away. His father then takes him to court to essentially disown him from the family business. Francis was known for being a charismatic street preacher and founder of the order Fratres Minores for renouncing socioeconomic class.

St. Dominic

1170-1221. Priest and canon from Castile. Early in his career, he traveled with the bishop Diego on a mission towards Denmark, and along the way get into debates with heretics in southern France. To combat these heretics, both Diego and Dominic adapt to apostolic life.

st. Clare of Assisi

1253. Is inspired by Francis of Assisi’s lifestyle and wants to join in. Francis does not want her to join apostolic life since the life would have been dangerous for women so he puts her in a monastery and later gives her a church which she becomes the abbess of. She accepts enclosure at San Damiano but insists on a life of poverty. On her deathbed, she succeeded, with approval from the pope, her “Form of Life.” After her death, the papacy manipulated her image as “St. Clare” to create the “Order of St. Clare” in 1263.

King John of England

1199-1216. Generally regarded as shrewd and untrustworthy in how during a tour in the France, he falls in love with a marries the heiress Isabelle of Angouleme who was already engaged to Hugh of Lusignan, a noble of John’s. When King Philip ii confronts John and calls him to Paris to settle the dispute, John doesn’t show up, so Philip takes all of John’s lands north of France by 1204. During the conflict between Otto and Frederick’s family, John supports Otto, and at the Battle of Bouvines, John is supposed to meet Philip’s forces at Paris with Otto, but the French nobles refuse to side with him so he turns back instead. in 1215, the barons want the king to acknowledge that his power wasn’t absolute and has to consult barons before making decisions, but John refuses so the barons ask the king of France to invade England, only then did John sign the Magna Carta (start of constitutional monarchy).

King Henry iii of England

1216-1272. War breaks out between the king and his barons by 1264. Henry is a pious king and tries to ignore Magna Carta, only consulting barons when he is out of money and needs to discuss taxation, which the barons eventually straight up refuse to discuss with him. Henry resorts to putting into place the provisions of Oxford, which were mandatory meetings, the king selecting one half and the barons selecting the other half. However this did not last long and Henry returns to the previous government the barons resented. This causes a civil war between the barons and Henry, with Simon of Monteforte the leader of the barons. Henry is soon captured for 15 months and Simon rules England in the kings name. Henry’s son Edward eventually defeated Simons army in 1265, and Simon was executed.

King Edward I

1272-1307. Parliament comes into existence gradually between 1258 and 1300 when the civil war is going on and Henry is still imprisoned, comes fully established under Edward i. Edward agrees to it because he does not want challenges in his reign, and his military strength encourages him to foster parliament as a formal and permanent institution. He had a successful conquest of Wales and attempted to gain Scotland.

King Philip ii Augustus of France

1180-1223. Philip takes all of King John’s lands in northern France by 1204. During conflict between Otto and Frederick’s Family, Philip takes Frederick’s side, and is triumphant at the battle of Bouvines against Otto’s side since the French have an advantage based on land position. Philip puts into place effective administration methods like bailiffs and prevots, as well as enforcing the idea of the Sacred Monarchy in order to gain loyalty in new conquered lands.

Queen Blanche of Castile

1252. Influenced her son Louis ix very greatly. she was a Spanish princess who married into French royal family, and was very successful in putting down revolts, negotiating alliances, and leading armies when Louis was young, and continued to play a dominant role when he becomes of age to rule. When Louis goes on a crusade (despite Blanche’s efforts to keep him home), she resumed duties of regent despite her declining health, including the construction of a new port at Aigues-Mortes, carrying on her son’s reforms of the French royal administration, and keeping the peace.

king Louis 9 of France

1226-1270. Louis believed that God expected things of him, like how to manage orphans, widows, the poor, etc. in his kingdom. In the 1240s, Louis makes a deal with the Latin emperor who sells him the crown of thorns which he builds the Saint-Chapelle for. He leads two crusades in 1248 and 1270→ both fail. He believes he is chosen by God and created officials called enqueteurs to go around asking common people how the kingdom is doing in their perspective. After his death, the Catholic Church makes him a saint, the outcome of his rule created a sense of loyalty throughout the kingdom, unlike others in Europe.

Chretien de Troyes

1135-1183. A troubadour who wrote Romance (vernacular) stories, an example being Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart. He worked for a French aristocratic woman who had him write these for her, and these stories posed many questions and dilemmas to readers, which were meant to spark debate and discussion.

Marie de France

1190s. Not much is known about her, but she was perceived to be a multilingual, well-known woman of her time, and wrote “Lais” a collection of short stories, and “Fables.” She also translated lots of Latin literature into French.

Thomas Aquinas

1225-1275. A Dominican, master of theology at the university of Paris. Early on he was an educated churchman, then becoming a Dominican, then later teaching at Paris. He had a logician belief that human beings are inclined to politics, and was very influenced by Aristotle’s view of human government. He wrote a book called “Summa Theologica” which essentially was about how seeking logic leads to faith, and seeking faith leads to logic, i.e. faith=logic.

Dante Alighier

1265-1321. Best known for writing the Divine Comedy. His family is exiled from Florence while he is young, and as an adult he becomes a master of latin. His works include “Love Poetry” and “Divine Comedy” which was Italian vernacular about the journey through hell, purgatory, and heaven, encompassing the three together.