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What is Social Psychology? What do they study
It is the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another (think, feel, behave). It is used to UNDERSTAND how social influences SHAPE individual’s THOUGHTS, EMOTIONS, AND ACTIONS.
What is correlational research? know correlation coefficient, what the number and sign indicate, positive and negative correlations
Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables. The correlation coefficient measures the strength and direction of the relationship. The number indicates the strength (0 to 1), while the sign (+/-) indicates the direction (positive/negative) of the correlation. Positive correlation means variables move in the same direction, negative correlation means they move in opposite directions.
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate. The more scattered the more it equals as a weaker correlation.
+ Correlation: One variable INCREASES, and the other variable also tends to INCREASE.
- Correlation: One variable INCREASES, and the other variable tends to DECREASE.
0 indicates little to no linear relationship between variables.
Internal Disposition
Refers to inherent qualities or characteristics within an individual that influence their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. These traits are typically considered to be stable aspects of an individual's personality and include factors such as temperament, personality traits, attitudes, beliefs, and values.
Ex. Scenario:
Sara is an outgoing and sociable person who enjoys spending time with friends and meeting new people. She often volunteers to organize social gatherings and is always eager to participate in group activities.
Internal Disposition:
In this scenario, Sara's internal disposition refers to her personality traits and characteristics. Specifically, her outgoing nature, sociability, and enthusiasm for social interactions are internal dispositions. These traits are inherent to Sara's personality and influence how she behaves in social situations.
Explanation:
Sara's outgoing nature is a result of her internal disposition. It reflects her innate tendency to seek social interaction and engage with others. This disposition shapes Sara's behavior by driving her to actively participate in social activities, initiate conversations, and foster connections with people around her.
Key Takeaway:
Internal dispositions like personality traits play a significant role in shaping individual behavior. In Sara's case, her outgoing and sociable nature drives her to seek social interaction and actively engage with others, influencing how she navigates social situations and interacts with her environment.
External Disposition
Refers to the influence of situational factors outside an individual that affect their behavior or actions.
Example: An example of an external disposition could be a person's behavior changing due to peer pressure in a group setting.
Ex. Let's say you have a friend who is usually outgoing and sociable (internal disposition). However, when they are in a large, crowded party where they don't know many people, they become quiet and reserved (situational influence). In this scenario, the external situation (the crowded party) is impacting their behavior, causing them to behave differently than they typically would based on their internal disposition.
What is Hindsight Bias?
Is the tendency to believe that events were predictable or foreseeable after they have already occurred. It can lead to overestimating one's ability to have predicted an outcome. It is also known as the “I- KNEW- IT- ALL- ALONG” PHENOMENON
Ex. You are watching a movie with a big plot and twist, and when that plot or twist gets revealed we say “I so saw that coming”. But in reality, we might have not actually predicted the outcome.
What is a hypothesis and what is its purpose?
Is a testable statement that predicts the outcome of a research study. Its purpose is to guide the research process by providing a clear direction and focus for the investigation. It’s a good way to make a theory practical.
how can survey results be influenced?
Survey results can be influenced by factors like ORDER OF QUESTION, WORDING, FRAMING (the way a question or an issue is posed.)
Demand Characteristics
Refers to cues or subtle signals in a research setting that may lead participants to infer the purpose of the study, influencing their behavior and responses, thus affecting the validity of the results.
Ex. In a study where participants are told they are testing a new anxiety medication, they may exhibit behaviors they believe are expected, such as reporting reduced anxiety levels, even if they haven't experienced any actual change.
Random Assignment
Is a method used in research where participants are assigned to different groups without any bias, ensuring each participant has an equal chance of being in any group.
Ex. In a study on the effects of a new teaching method, students are randomly assigned to either the experimental group (using the new method) or the control group (using the traditional method).
Dependent Variable
The variable being measured, is called because it depends on manipulations of the independent variable.
Is the thing you're trying to find out about. It's what changes as a result of something else in the experiment.
Ex. Let's say you're testing how different amounts of sunlight affect plant growth.
Independent Variable: The amount of sunlight (you control this).
Dependent Variable: The height of the plants (this changes depending on the amount of sunlight).
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that a researcher manipulates. Is the factor that the experimenter deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment. It's what you're testing to see how it affects the dependent variable.
Ex. Imagine you want to test how different amounts of study time affect exam scores. You have three groups of students:
Group A: Studies for 1 hour
Group B: Studies for 3 hours
Group C: Studies for 5 hours
In this experiment, the independent variable is the amount of study time each group receives. You're deliberately changing this variable to see how it affects the dependent variable, which is the exam scores. So, the independent variable is the different amounts of study time, and the dependent variable is the exam scores.
Spotlight Effec
definition of spotlight effect and example of it
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Is a cognitive bias where individuals tend to overestimate the extent to which others notice and pay attention to their appearance, behavior, or actions in social situations.
Ex. Wearing a unique outfit to a party and believing everyone will notice and judge it, when in reality, most people are focused on themselves and may not pay much attention to it.
Illusion of Transparency
Is when you think your internal thoughts and feelings are more obvious to others than they actually are.
Self-Concept
Refers to an individual's perception of themselves, including beliefs, abilities, and characteristics.
Ex. An example of self-concept is a person seeing themselves as intelligent, kind, and creative.
Self-Schemas
These are cognitive structures that organize self-relevant information.
Ex. A person with a self-schema of being athletic may prioritize activities like running or playing sports.
Impact Bias
Is the tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of emotional reactions to future events.
Ex. people often believe that winning the lottery will bring everlasting happiness, but in reality, the initial excitement fades quickly.
Independent Self
The concept of an independent self refers to a person's ability to make decisions and act autonomously, without being overly influenced by external factors.
Focuses on individuals identity and autonomy
focuses on uniqueness, personal achievements, individuality
Standing out from others, self-reliance
Commonly found in WESTERN CULTURES
Interdependent Self
Refers to individuals who define themselves in relation to others, emphasizing connections and relationships. They prioritize group harmony and cooperation over individual goals.
Connections, collaborations, group harmony
prioritizes the needs and goals of others
Commonly found in EASTERN CULTURES
Individualistic Cultures
prioritize personal goals over group goals, value independence, and encourage self-expression.
Individual rights and achievements
Emphasizes Personal freedom, independence, and individual achievements
value self-expression
Encourage individuals to assert opinions, purse interests, and stand out.
Found in WESTERN SOCIETIES and US, CANADA, EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.
Ex. The United States is often cited as an example of an individualistic culture.
Collectivistic Culture
A culture that emphasizes group harmony, cooperation, and interdependence over individual needs.
Encourages individuals to prioritize the needs/goals of the group over personal desires.
Found in EASTERN SOCIETIES: CHINA, KOREA, JAPAN, SOUTH AFRICAN AMERICAN
Ex. Japanese culture values group consensus and harmony over personal desires.
Self Esteem
Refers to an individual's overall subjective emotional evaluation of their own worth and value. It encompasses beliefs about oneself, including feelings of competence, confidence, and self-respect.
Low Self-Esteem
Constant self-criticism and negative self-talk
feeling worthless, self-doubt
seeking validation from others
depression, anxiety, and other mental health issues
difficulty asserting oneself and setting boundaries.
High Self-Esteem
Confidence in one's abilities
Positive self-image
Resilience in the face of challenges
Healthy boundaries in relationships
Willingness to take risks
Self-acceptance and self-respect
Extreme High Self-Esteem
Exaggerated sense of self-importance
Constant need for admiration from others
Sense of entitlement to special treatment
Difficulty accepting criticism or failure
Tendency to exploit others for personal gain
Risk of Narcissism or egocentric behavior
Text Content: Extreme High Self-Esteem Research shows that individuals with extremely high self-esteem and narcissism are more likely to engage in risky behaviors than other people.
How does Culture impact self-esteem?
Cultural norms shape self-perception
Values influence self-worth
Social comparisons affect self-esteem
Cultural acceptance impacts confidence
Cultural practices, and beliefs.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task.
Ex. A student with high self-efficacy in math believes they can solve complex problems and persist in learning despite challenges.
what makes individuals with strong feelings of self-efficacy different than those with low?
Individuals with strong self-efficacy believe in their ability to succeed, leading to higher motivation, resilience, and perseverance compared to those with low self-efficacy. They set challenging goals, view obstacles as tasks to overcome, and have greater confidence in their capabilities.
System 1
Operates quickly, automatic and intuitive mode of thinking. “gut feeling” focus is not required much.
Ex. recognizing faces, riding a bike, judging fastly if a situation is safe or not.
System 2
Controlled processing; slow, deliberate, and analytic mode of thinking.
Requires conscious effort, attention, and mental solutions.
involves logical reasoning, problem-solving, and critical use for complex tasks.
Belief Perseverance
Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to initial beliefs even after they have been discredited.
Ex. when someone continues to believe in a conspiracy theory despite evidence proving it false.
Priming
Is a psychological phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus.
Ex. If someone is shown the word "yellow," they are more likely to recognize the word "banana" shortly after due to the association between the two words.
Overconfidence Phenomenon
Being too sure of ourselves, even when we shouldn’t be.
Ex. A student may believe they will ace an exam without studying, leading to poor performance due to overconfidence.
Representative Heuristic
Is a mental shortcut where people judge the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a prototype.
Ex. Assuming someone who wears glasses is intelligent because they fit the stereotype of a smart person.
Availability Heuristic
Is a mental shortcut where people make judgments based on the ease with which examples come to mind.
Ex. Believing that shark attacks are more common than they actually are because of media coverage.
Attribution Theory
How we explain why things happen/ how people explain other people’s behavior
Ex. blaming someone’s personality (they are lazy)
Dispositional Attribution
When we explain someones’s behavior based on who they are on the inside.
Ex. Someone is always cheerful, you might say its because they have a naturally happy personality.
Situational Attributions
Refer to explaining behavior based on external factors or circumstances rather than internal traits.
Example: If someone performs poorly on a test due to a noisy environment rather than lack of ability.
OR
If someone is late to class because there was a traffic jam, you’d say its cause of the situation and not because they are always late.
How do social psychologists measure people's attitudes?
Implicit Association Test IAT
What are Attitudes?
are our personal evaluations and feelings towards people, objects, or ideas.
Main takeaways of Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment
Main takeaways of Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment
Role Influence: Showed how individuals quickly conform to assigned roles, even in artificial and harmful situations.
Deindividuation and conformity: Loss of personal identity can lead to negative behaviors. Also, adhere to group norms
Situational Impact: emphasizes the -significant impact of the environment and social context on behavior
Ethical Concerns: Long lasting effects of Role Playing or Adopting certain Social Positions, can have on individual’s behavior and self-perception. Embodies character.
Self-Presentation
Definition: Self-presentation refers to the conscious or subconscious process through which individuals strategically display themselves to others in order to shape a particular impression or image.
Ex. Is when someone carefully chooses their outfit and behavior for a job interview to appear professional and competent.
Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort experienced when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes.
Ex. is smoking being harmful while continuing to smoke.
Over-justification Effect
Bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.
Ex. a child who loves drawing may lose interest if rewarded for each drawing.
Facial Feedback Effect
Is the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions. When a person smiles, they may feel happier.
Ex. Smiling while watching a funny movie can enhance the feeling of amusement.
Potent Attitudes
are strong beliefs or feelings that strongly influence behavior.
Ex. a student's strong belief in the importance of education, leading to diligent studying habits.
Norms
Are established rules or standards of behavior within a society or group.
Ex. is the expectation to greet someone with a handshake in many Western cultures.
Culture
Refers to the beliefs, customs, arts, etc., of a particular society, group, place, or time. It encompasses language, traditions, rituals, social norms, and values that are passed down through generations.
Personal Space
Refers to the physical and emotional distance individuals prefer to maintain between themselves and others in social interactions. It varies across cultures and individuals.
Evolutionary Psychologist
How evolutionary principles shape human behavior, cognition, and emotions to understand the mind's adaptive functions.
know what natural selection says about survival and reproduction
Is a process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more. It leads to the evolution of species over time.
What are the gender differences when choosing leaders - which gender do we prefer in different situations?
In general, research suggests that both men and women tend to prefer male leaders in traditionally masculine domains or contexts.
However, in more communal or nurturing roles, both genders may prefer female leaders.
These preferences can vary based on cultural, societal, and individual factors.
Know how men and women differ with respect to aggressiveness
Biological, Social, and Cultural Factors
Know what women and men prefer in mating - how they differ and how they are similar
Men typically prioritize physical attractiveness and youth in potential mates due to evolutionary factors related to fertility and reproductive success.
Women often prioritize traits such as financial stability, social status, and resources in potential mates, which can provide security and support for themselves and their offspring.
Both genders value kindness, intelligence, and a sense of humor in a potential partner, although the degree of importance may vary.
Know and understand Leung and Bond's five universal dimensions on social beliefs
Interpersonal Relationships: This dimension reflects beliefs about the importance of social connections, trust, and cooperation among individuals.
Religiosity: It pertains to beliefs and attitudes towards religion, spirituality, and the supernatural.
Conservatism: This dimension concerns attitudes towards tradition, authority, and adherence to societal norms and values.
Social Axioms: These are general beliefs about social reality, including beliefs about social relationships, human nature, and the world.
Social Beliefs and Values: This dimension encompasses beliefs about societal fairness, equality, and justice, as well as attitudes towards social change and progress.
Know how biology and culture both influence gender roles
Biological Influences:
Hormonal Differences: Variances in hormone levels, such as testosterone and estrogen, can affect physical and psychological characteristics associated with gender.
Brain Structure: Some studies suggest differences in brain structure and function between males and females, influencing cognitive and behavioral patterns.
Evolutionary Factors: Evolutionary psychology posits that certain gender roles may have evolved to enhance survival and reproduction, leading to innate behavioral tendencies.
Cultural Influences:
Socialization: Cultural norms, expectations, and values transmitted through socialization processes shape gender roles from an early age.
Gender Stereotypes: Societal beliefs about what behaviors, roles, and traits are appropriate for males and females contribute to the reinforcement of gender roles.
Institutional Practices: Institutions such as family, education, religion, and media perpetuate gender norms through their practices, policies, and representations.
Overall, biology provides a foundation for certain gender differences, while culture amplifies, reinforces, or modifies these differences through socialization and cultural practices.
Compliance
involving publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing
Obedience
involving acting in accord with a direct order or command
Mass Hysteria
suggestibility to problems that spreads throughout a large group of people.
Especially disturbing forms of mass hysteria: socially contagious conversion disorder; suicide; gun violence.
Acceptance
involving both acting and believing in accord with social pressure
Norm Formation
Norm formation refers to the process by which shared rules, expectations, and standards of behavior develop within a group or society. Here's a simplified breakdown:
Description: Norms are the unwritten rules that guide behavior and dictate what is considered acceptable or appropriate within a particular social context. Norm formation occurs when individuals within a group or society establish and reinforce these standards through social interaction and consensus.
Examples: Imagine you're in a classroom setting where the teacher has a rule that everyone should raise their hand before speaking. Over time, as students consistently follow this rule and receive positive reinforcement for doing so, it becomes a norm within the classroom.
Causes: Norms can emerge through various processes, including socialization, conformity, and cultural transmission. They may develop in response to social needs, environmental cues, or shared values and beliefs.
Significance: Norms serve several functions within society, including promoting social order, facilitating cooperation and coordination, and shaping individual behavior. They help maintain stability and cohesion within groups by providing a common framework for interaction and reducing uncertainty.
The Chameleon Effect
The chameleon effect, also known as mirroring, refers to the unconscious tendency to mimic the behaviors, gestures, facial expressions, and speech patterns of others. Here's a breakdown:
Description: The term "chameleon effect" comes from the chameleon's ability to change color to match its surroundings. Similarly, humans tend to imitate the behaviors of those around them, often without realizing it.
Examples: Have you ever noticed yourself adopting the posture or mannerisms of someone you're talking to? That's the chameleon effect in action. For instance, if you're having a conversation with a friend who speaks slowly and calmly, you might find yourself naturally slowing down your speech and adopting a relaxed demeanor.
Causes: The chameleon effect is believed to stem from a combination of social influence, empathy, and the human tendency to seek affiliation and rapport with others. People often mimic others' behaviors to build rapport, establish social connections, and convey empathy.
Significance: The chameleon effect plays a crucial role in social interaction, communication, and relationship building. It helps foster feelings of similarity and rapport between individuals, leading to smoother interactions and enhanced social cohesion.
Conformity
A change in behavior or belief as the result of real or imagined group pressure.
Three varieties of conformity:
•Acceptance: involving both acting and believing in accord with social pressure
•Compliance: involving publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing
•Obedience: involving acting in accord with a direct order or command
Solomon Asch (line comparison)
Experiment: Asch's experiment focused on conformity, specifically the extent to which people yield to group pressure even when they know the group is wrong. Participants were asked to match the length of a standard line to one of three comparison lines.
Method: Participants were placed in groups where everyone else was a Confederate instructed to give the wrong answer on some trials. The real participant typically conformed to the incorrect group consensus, even though the correct answer was obvious.
Findings: Asch found that about 75% of participants conformed to the group's wrong answer at least once, even when it was clearly incorrect. Many participants reported feeling discomfort and self-doubt when going against the group.
Significance: This experiment demonstrated the powerful influence of social pressure on individual behavior and decision-making. It highlighted the importance of social conformity and provided insights into group dynamics and the psychology of social influence.
Stanley Milgram (shock)
Experiment: Milgram's experiment aimed to investigate obedience to authority figures, particularly in the context of inflicting harm on others. Participants were instructed to administer increasingly severe electric shocks to another person (a confederate) whenever they answered questions incorrectly.
Method: Participants believed they were involved in a study on memory and learning. They were instructed by an authority figure (the experimenter) to continue administering shocks, even as the voltage levels increased to potentially dangerous levels. The shocks were not real, but the confederate's reactions were scripted to simulate distress and pain.
Findings: Shockingly, about two-thirds of participants continued to administer shocks up to the highest levels, despite the apparent suffering of the other person. Many participants showed signs of extreme stress and conflict during the experiment.
Significance: Milgram's study revealed the extent to which ordinary people are willing to obey authority figures, even when it involves harming others. It raised ethical concerns about the treatment of research participants and sparked discussions about the nature of obedience, moral responsibility, and the power of situational factors in shaping behavior.
Muzafer Sherif (auto-kinetic) studies
Autokinetic phenomenon: self (auto) motion (kinetic); the apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark.
Method: Participants were individually asked to estimate how much a light appeared to move in a dark room. Then, they were placed in groups and asked to provide estimates collectively.
Findings: Sherif found that individual estimates varied widely when participants were alone. However, when placed in groups, their estimates converged over time, forming a group norm. This demonstrated the power of social influence in shaping perception.
Significance: The auto-kinetic effect experiment helped illustrate the process of norm formation and the influence of social context on individual behavior and perception. It provided insights into conformity and group dynamics.
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