SENIOR EXAM PREP REVIEW (Psychology)

correlational research

Research that examines the relationships between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together.

Clever Hans Effect

the teacher/therapist/researcher unconsciously guides the subject's response.

nomothetic approach

seeks broad, general principles of personality

ideographic approach

identifying specific characteristics and life experiences of specific individuals

Qualitative Research

informal research methods, including observation, following social media sites, in-depth interviews, focus groups, and projective techniques

Quantitative Research

Research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales.

Falsifiability

a feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Artifacts

these are results from an experiment as a result of unseen factors due to the experiment not being well controlled.

construct

a concept that cannot be directly observed or measured

Operationalization

the process of assigning a precise method for measuring a term being examined for use in a particular study

Independent Variable (IV)

the factor the researcher manipulates in a controlled experiment (the cause)

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

descriptive study

a study in which the researcher attempts to describe a group by obtaining data from a variety of variables from its members

Sample

a subset of the population used in a research study

Sampling

process by which participants are selected for a research study

Generalizability

The extent to which quantitative research results apply to a broader range of individuals not included in the study.

Transferability

A qualitative term for when findings from a study can be transferred to settings and/or populations outside the study only if the findings of a particular study are corroborated by finding of similar studies (for example in multiple case studies).

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

snowball sampling

recruitment of participants based on word of mouth or referrals from other participants

Opportunity (Convenience) sampling

A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study.

Volunteer (self-selected) sampling

Nonrandom sampling method where participants join on their own into the sample

Independent measures design

An experimental design in which a different group of participants is used for each level of the IV (condition)

repeated measures design

The same participants are used in all the conditions in an experiment.

matched pairs design

A method of assigning subjects to groups in which pairs of subjects are first matched on some characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to conditions in an experiment.

field experiment

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.

natural experiment

An experiment in which nature, rather than an experimenter, manipulates an independent variable.

quasi-experiment

a type of experiment where a comparison is made, as in a true experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs

Triangulation

A means of establishing trustworthiness(credibility) of a study in Qualitative Research

sampling bias

exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn

demand characteristics/ participant bias

a tendency for research participants to respond in a certain way because they know they are being observed, or they believe they know what the researcher wants

selection bias

in an experiment, unintended differences between the participants in different groups

Researcher Bias (Observer Bias)

When you experimenter sees what he or she is looking for and expects certain outcomes for the experiment.

external validity

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people

ecological validity

The degree to which a study finding has been obtained under conditions that are typical for what happens in everyday life.

construct validity

the extent to which variables measure the concept they are supposed to measure

controlled experiment

a test of the effect of a single variable by changing it while keeping all other variables the same

Null Hypothesis (H0)

a statement that the experimental manipulation had no important effect

hypothesis

a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation. It must be testable and falsifiable based on the results of an experiment or observation.

case study

an qualitative study technique in which one person, one group, or one population is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

unstructured interview

An interviewing method that uses no predetermined interview protocol or survey and where the interview questions emerge and evolve as the interview proceeds in a qualitative study.

Semi-structured interview

There is a list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers are also free to ask follow up questions when they feel it is appropriate in a qualitative study. Often there is no set order or phrasing.

focus group interview

A research technique in which a small group of persons (usually 8 to 12) comes together for an intensive discussion about a particular topic, with the conversation guided by a trained moderator using an unstructured method of inquiry in a qualitative study.

Surveys

collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire in a quantitative study or interviews in a qualitative study.

research design

An overall structure for a study the might include one or more research methods.

Research Methods

the technique used to sample, collect, and analyze data; considered as one possible component of the research design.

Inductive content analysis

An analysis of qualitative data in which theory and hypotheses are derived from the data without prior hypothesis from field notes or transcripts:

1. Read and reread the data to identify raw data themes, do this until saturation is achieved (no more themes can be found)

2. Group the raw data themes into higher order themes that capture the main essences of the data.

3. Write an interpretation of the data, based on the identified highest order themes.

credibility

The degree to which the research gives a true picture of what is beings investigated and the results represent the perceptions and opinions of the research participants. Credibility is a factor in establishing trustworthiness in qualitative research.

Descriptive Statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

quota sampling

A nonprobability sampling technique in qualitative research in which researchers divide the population into groups and then choose a pre-determined number participants from each group in a non-random manner.

stratified sampling

A type of probability sampling in quantitative research in which the population is divided into groups with a common attribute and a random sample is chosen within each group

social desirability bias

the tendency for people to say what they believe is appropriate or acceptable

dominant responder bias

when one participant in a group interview influences the responses and behaviors of the others.

acquiescence bias

a tendency for respondents to agree with all or most questions asked of them in a survey

Sensitivity bias

The tendency of the participant to answer regular questions honestly, but distort their responses to questions on sensitive subjects.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

leading question bias

when questions are worded in a way that suggests a particular response

thick description

the presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members

Iterative Questioning

Returning to the topic later in the process of interaction with the participant and rephrasing the question. This allows a deeper investigation of sensitive topics.

question order bias

occurs when responses to one question influence the participant's responses to the following questions, this bias stems from the human tendency to be consistent in our beliefs and actions

biased reporting

Reporting in which one side is favored over another or one subject is unfairly represented

purposive sampling

a non-probability sampling technique where researchers intentionally select participants based on specific characteristics relevant to their study in qualitative research

extraneous variables

any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study; if not properly controlled they can become confounding variables.

questionnaire

Similar to a survey but has an underlying construct with measurable operationalized traits that can be statistically analyzed.

psychometrics

Statistical measures to test the reliability and validity of a questionnaire.

Reliability

The consistency of a measure; a reliable test produces similar results under consistent conditions.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure, ensuring that the conclusions drawn from test scores are accurate.

Standardization

The process of administering and scoring a test in a consistent manner to ensure comparability of results.

Test Bias

A systematic error in a test that results in unfair advantages or disadvantages for certain groups of test-takers.

Construct Validity

The degree to which a test truly measures the theoretical construct it is intended to measure.

Inventory

An assessment where individuals evaluate their own or other's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to gain insight into their mental health.

internal validity

the degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not confounding variables

credibility

the quality of a study being believable or trustworthy; will have low threats to internal validity of a study or experiment

Construct validity

The degree to which a study or experiment measures the concept what it claims, or purports, to be measuring

Population validity

A type of external validity, the degree to which the study results can be generalized to and across the people in the target population

Ecological validity (mundane realism)

the extent to which the tasks and manipulations of a study are generalizable to real-world contexts

maturation threat

a threat to internal validity when the change in the dependent variable is due subjects change by growing or maturing rather than the independent variable

history threat

a threat to internal validity when the change in the dependent variable is due to outside events happening to the participants over the course of a study rather than the independent variable

selection threat

a threat to internal validity that can occur when nonrandom procedures are used to assign subjects to conditions or when random assignment fails to balance out differences among subjects across the different conditions of the experiment

testing effect threat

A threat to internal validity where enhanced performance on a test may be caused by being tested previously; a type of order effect in an experiment that can be reduced by counterbalancing.

counterbalancing

A method of controlling for order effects in a repeated measure design by either including all orders of treatment or by randomly determining the order for each subject

instrumentation threat

a threat to internal validity produced by changes in the measuring instrument itself, including a measurement tool or the researcher themselves.

regression to the mean threat

a threat to internal validity related to regression toward the mean, by which any extreme finding is likely to be closer to its own typical, or mean, level the next time it is measured (with/without intervention)

an unusually good performance will regress downward toward the mean next time and an unusually bad performance is likely to regress upward to the mean

ex. good mood affected by rain, grumpy friends, parking problems

experimental mortality threat

a threat to internal validity that means that people are "dying" with respect to your study (Dropping out of study)

experimenter bias

a threat to internal validity that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained, skewing the results; can be reduced with a double-blind study

double-blind experiment

an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment until after the experiment is over; reduces experimenter bias

demand characteristics (Hawthorne Effect)

a threat to internal validity when participants act differently simply because they know that they are in an experiment

holistic viewpoint

This means taking multiple factors (or the entire human being) into account when studying behavior.

reductionist viewpoint

This means to study behavior scientifically, we need to isolate certain factors or behaviors and study them individually.

Localization of function

... the idea that every behavior is associated with a specific brain region or area.

The Nervous System

A system of neurons that perform the function of communication throughout the body.

The central nervous system

This systems consists of the spinal cord and the brain.

Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to change by the development and destruction of synaptic connections between neurons or neural networks. This could be caused by genetic or environmental factors.

synaptic pruning

the elimination of neurons as the result of nonuse or lack of stimulation

Neuron

Nerve cells that send messages all over your body to allow you to do everything from breathing to talking, eating, walking, and thinking.

Synapse (synaptic cleft or synaptic gap)

The places where neurons connect and communicate with each other.

Neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter that allows the events or impulses to cross a synapse by triggering an action potential in the post-synaptic neuron.