AP PSYCH AP TEST/2nd SEMESTER FINAL (BOTH SEMESTERS) (copy)

memory consolidation

memory consolidation

A storage process where memories migrate from the hippocampus to somewhere else for storage

basal ganglia

deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

aplysia

a sea slug studied to increase our understanding of neural basis of learning.

Electro conclusive therapy

A procedure that uses mild electric current to cause brief seizure to treat severe mental health conditions

long-term potentiation

Increased cell firing potential after brief rapid simulation. neural basis for learning and memory.

Retrieval cues

A prompt to help us remember something

Encoding specific principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

state-dependent memory

what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state

mood congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current good or bad mood.

serial position effect

Our tendency to recall the first and last items in a list the best.

Measures of retention

Evidence that learning presists including three measures(Recall, Recognition, relearning)

Recall

retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time

recognition

identifying items previously learned

Relearning

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time

Ebbinghaus' Retention Curve

ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the less time he required to relearn it on day 2.
-Speed of relearning is one measure of memory retention

information processing model

framework used by cognitive psychologists to explain and describe mental processes

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

Storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Parallel Processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

psychologists credited for the creation of the three-step model to explain our memory forming process

Three stage model

a model of memory that posits three distinct stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

Alan Baddeley

Created model of working memory which includes visual and auditory rehearsal of info

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

central executive

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory which focuses attention

Explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Space

While studying you often encode the place on a page where certain material appears later when you want to retrieve the info you may visualize its location of the page.

Time

When going about your day you unintentionally note the sequence of its events.

Total recall

the ability to remember with clarity every detail of the events of one's life or of a particular event, object, or experience

George Sperling

Tested recall time by flashing rows of numbers and saw if participants could immediately recall the numbers

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

George miller

He proposed that we can store abut seven bits of into in the short term memory.

Short term memory decay

unless rehearsed, verbal information may be quickly forgotten

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

Shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of the words.

Deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

After learning lists of nonsense syllables, Ebbinghaus studied how much he retained up to 30 days later. He found that memory for novel information fades quickly, then levels out.

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

false memories

claiming to remember an event that never happened

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. At the heart of false memories

Deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

illusory correlation

Feed an illusion of control- that chance events are subject to our personal control

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

three possible cause effect relationship

people low in self-esteem or more likely to report depression than are those in high self-esteem
reason 1: low self-esteem could cause depression
or
reason 2: depression could cause low self-esteem
or
reason 3: distressing events or biological predisposition could cause low self-esteem and depression

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debreifing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the average obtained through adding the scores then dividing by the number of scores.

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

biological perspective

concerned with the links between biology and behavior

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.