final exam cumulative!!!!

1. BASIC ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB) MODEL

…

basic ob model

inputs → processes → outcomes

**occurs on an individual, group, and organizational level

inputs

= people, team, etc (noun) … the ingredients

INDIVIDUAL

-diversity

-personality

-values

GROUP

-group structure

-group roles

-team responsibilities

ORGANIZATIONAL

-structure

-culture

processes

= actions that people or organizations engage in as a result of inputs that lead to certain outcomes (verb) … the mixing

INDIVIDUAL

-emotions and moods

-motivation

-perception

-decision making

GROUP

-communication

-leadership

-power and politics

-conflict and negotiation

ORGANIZATIONAL

-human resource management

-change practices

outcomes

= key variables you want to explain or predict, and that are affected by some other variables… the cake!

INDIVIDUAL

-attitudes and stress

-job performance

-citizenship behavior

-withdrawal behavior (doing the bare minimum or “quiet quitting”)

GROUP

-team performance

ORGANIZATIONAL

-productivity (inputs→outputs)

-survival (evidence you can continue to exist as a company)

responses to low job satisfaction / dissatisfaction

→ active vs passive (take initiative vs sit back)

→ constrictive vs destructive (do something that makes it better vs makes it worse)

2. FUNCTIONS OF MANAGERS

…

four functions of managers

1) planning

2) organizing

3) leading

4) controlling

1) planning

= a process that includes DEFINING GOALS, establishing strategy, and developing plans to coordinate activities

- environment context: market, trends, history, competition

2) organizing

= determining WHAT tasks are to be done, WHO is to do them, HOW the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made

- workers/people, tasks, structure, processes

**role clarity

3) leading

= a function that includes MOTIVATING employees, DIRECTING others, selecting the most effective communication channels, and resolving conflicts

- hire, train, coach, mentor

4) controlling

= MONITORING activities to ensure that they are being accomplished as planned, and correcting any significant deviations (aka pivot/react!)

- performance: organization, group, individuals (did we perform and achieve what we set out to achieve)

3. ATTITUDES AND EMOTIONS

…

components of attitudes

1. cognitive = evaluation (opinion or belief)

2. affective = feelings (emotional)

3. behavioral = action (an intention to behave a certain way)

→ leads to negative work attitudes, especially towards a supervisor

cognitive dissonance

= a psychological discomfort that results from holding two conflicting attitudes or between behavior and attitudes

-creates a disequilibrium within us... brain hold two contradicting ideas until WE change them to become consistent with each other (people tend to seek consistency in their attitudes so the conflict causes discomfort which motivates us to take action)

cognitive reappraisal

= reframing our outlook on an emotional situation ; rethinking (most helpful to individuals in situations that cannot control their stress)

**power poses

emotions vs moods

→ affect vs emotions vs mood

affect

= a term used to describe a broad range of feelings that people experience, including emotions and moods

emotions

= intense, discrete, and short-lived feelings directed at someone or something and often caused by a specific event

mood

= feelings that tend to be longer-lived and less intense than emotions, and lack contextual stimulus (aka we don’t know what caused it)

the affective circumplex

emotional dissonance

= inconsistencies between the emotions people feel and the emotions they project ; the degree of stress that we feel when we constantly have to project/ fake an emotion when we are actually feeling another way

surface acting

= hiding one’s feelings and foregoing emotional expressions in response to display rules

**DISPLAYED EMOTIONS (organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job)

ex. a worker who smiles at a customer even when they do not feel like it

deep acting

= trying to modify one’s try feelings based on display rules

**FELT EMOTIONS (actual emotions.. what i really feel)

→ taking on a different persona in extreme cases

4. PERSONALITY

…

personality

= the sum of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with the world around them (aka measurable traits a person exhibits)

personality traits

= enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior

→ the things that stick with us over time … or the traits people would use to describe us

the big 5 (ocean)

= a personality model that proposes five basic dimensions encompass most of the differences in human personality

Openness to experience

Conscientiousness

Extraversion
Agreeableness

Emotional stability or Negative emotionality

openness to experience

imagination, artistic sensitivity, and curiosity

conscientiousness

responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized

extraversion

sociable and assertive

agreeableness

good natured, cooperative, trusting

emotional stability or negative emotionality

positive: calm, self confident, secure

versus

negative: nervous, anxious, and insecure

dark triad

= a constellation of negative personality traits consisting of…

1) machiavellianism

2) narcissism

3) psychopathy

1) machiavellianism

= the degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means

ex. "i do whatever i have to do to get ahead"

2) narcissism

= the tendency to be arrogant, have a grandoise sense of self importance, require excessive admiration, and possess a sense of entitlement

-like to be the center of attention, have fantasies of grand success, a tendency to exploit situations/people, and can be hypersensitive or fragile

ex. ceo bc they tend to be more close minded

3) psychopathy

= the tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm

-lack of empathy, willingness to use deceit to obtain desired ends (ex. i want what i want)

5. BIASES

…

biases in decision making

• based on biases (overconfidence, anchoring, confirmation, availability)

• overestimation of control (escalation of commitment, hindsight bias)

• individual differences

• strength of the organization or constraints

self-serving bias

= the tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors

ex. not buying lunch for a friend (if someone doesn’t buy our lunch, we call them cheap ; if we don’t buy their lunch, we say it’s because our job doesn’t pay well)

anchoring bias

= a tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adjust adequately for subsequent information ; when the mind emphasizes the first piece of information it hears

**negotiations and anchoring go hand in hand

availability bias

= the tendency for people to base their judgements on information that is readily available to them (social media)

hindsight bias

= the tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of a event is known, that one have accurately predicted that outcome

(when believe that we predicted something AFTER it already happened)

6. WORKPLACE DIVERSITY

…

levels of diversity

surface level vs deeper level

surface level

= differences in easily perceived characteristics that do not necessarily reflect the way people think or feel but that may activate certain stereotypes

-gender identity / sexual orientation

-age

-race

-ethnicity

-ability (intellectual or physical)

deeper level

= differences that become progressively more important for determining similarity as people get to know one another better

-values

-personality

-work preferences

the cultural iceberg

• visible → customs and behaviors

• less visible → assumptions (space, eye contact, distance)

• not visible → values and unspoken beliefs

DEI

DEI = diversity, equity, and inclusion

- diversity / equality

- equity

- inclusivity

diversity / equality

diversity = celebrating rather than denigrating the representation of people and enhancing the representation of diverse, marginalized people in the workforce

equality = recognition that everyone gets the same thing but not everyone is starting at the same point

equity

= striving to provide access to the same opportunities for all workers, recognizing that people are afforded privileges while others are confronted with barriers

(bringing people up to the same level… recognizing that there are systemic problems that have created inequalities)

inclusivity

= creating an environment in which all people feel valued, welcomed, and included

(how do we remove barriers to create a sense of belonging)

7. GROUPS

…

group

= defined as two or more individuals, interacting and independent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives

- groups can be either formal or informal

formal group

= a designated work group defined by an organization’s structure

ex. members of an airline flight crew

informal group

= alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined and often meet to fulfill social needs or to bind employees with common interests (aka a group that is not defined by an organization’s structure)

ex. employees from different departments regularly getting lunch or coffee together

characteristics of groups

• size

• roles

• social identity theory

• formation

• conformity

group size

group size effects the group’s overall behavior!

• large groups → goof for gaining diverse input (goals like fact finding and idea generating)

• small groups → better doing something with input (goals like performance and productivity)

**usually less than 10 members

group roles

role = a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit

role perception

= an individuals’s view of how to act in a given situation (what am i here to do and how should i behave in a given situation)

role expectations

= how others believe a person should act in a given situation

(often emotionally and motivationally charged)

**psychological contract = an unwritten agreement between employees and employers that establishes mutual expectations (even if it is not spoken, people just know that this is the way you should be behaving in a situation)

role conflict

= a situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations

(the difficulty of having different roles and choosing what to prioritize)

ex. professors expected to be excellent teachers AND researchers when they normally only have enough time to perform one of those roles

social identity theory

= considers WHEN and WHY individuals consider themselves members of groups (aka why people identify with particular groups)

-people have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self esteem gets tied into the performance of their group

-downside: in groups and outgroups

**relational identification and collective identification**

relational identification

= when we connect with others because of our roles (we are both in marketing department)

collective identification

= when we connect with the aggregate characteristics of our groups (we both work at the same company)

group formation

• forming = learning about each other

• storming = challenging each other

• norming = working with each other

• performing = working as one

→very predictable process that groups go through when they are forming

conformity

= the adjustment of one’s behavior to align with the norms of the group

(yielding to group influence based on distortion of your own beliefs OR the degree to which a person’s own opinions are influenced by those of a group)

**asch’s study

group think

= a phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal for alternative courses of action

OR situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views (when you conform to the pressure of going along with what groups think rather than making a rational decision)

influencers of groupthink

a) position differences (status… if someone has a higher position than you, you are more likely to go along with them bc they have that higher power/control over you)

b) the desire to be positive vs disruptive force (you do not want to disagree bc u do not want to be known by others as the disruptor)

c) performance focus (getting thing done leads to shortcuts which makes products or services suck)

avoidance of groupthink

a) group size (6-10 people with diverse thinking)

b) impartiality

c) provoke competing views

d) seek diverse alternatives

group shift

= a change between a group’s decision and an individual decision that a member within the group would make; the shift can be toward either conservatism or greater risk, but it generally is toward a more extreme version of the group’s original position

(describes the way group members tend to exaggerate their initial positions when discussing a given set of alternatives to arrive at a solution)

social loafing

= the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than working individually (or alone)

→ in large groups, it is easier for people to hide and slack off of their work

→ in smaller groups, there is more accountability

**reward systems help prevent social loafing

8. TEAMS

…

teams vs groups

• teams are needed when the task can only be accomplished through constant communication and coordination between team members

• remember: teams are expensive! so the benefits of using teams have to exceed the costs, and that’s not always the case

-teams can sometimes accomplish feats an individual could never accomplish

-teams are more flexible and responsive to changing events (can quickly assemble, deploy, refocus, and disband)

work groups vs work teams

** teams = synergy (1+1=3)

team effectiveness model

→ composition, context, and processes/states

composition

= WHO is on the team … relevant skills and backgrounds to set the team up for success

**team size should be under 10!!! (helps with conflict… the more people there are, the longer it takes)

-abilities of members

-personality

-allocating roles

-diversity (… demography)

-cultural differences

-team size

-member preferences

context

= organizational management and resources available to support them (do we have the money, material, etc to do this project) ; are we structured appropriately

-adequate resources

-leadership and structure

-culture and climate

-performance evaluation and reward systems

-technology / virtuality

-interdependence

-crises and extreme contexts

-norms

processes/states

= events or things that happen within the team that end up impacting their effectiveness

-common purpose

-motivation

-team efficacy

-team identity

-team cohesion

-mental models

-conflict

-social loafing

-trust

types of teams

1) problem solving

2) self managed

3) cross functional

4) virtual

1) problem solving

= a team of employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment (can only make recommendations)

-aka people who come together specifically for solving one big problem… do not have accountability/responsibility for results or solutions

ex. quality control teams

2) self managed

= a team of employees who autonomously implement solutions and take responsibility for the outcomes of the solutions (responsibilities normally adopted by supervisors)

-aka members take on responsibilities of a manager

3) cross functional

= a team of employees from about the same hierarchical level but from different work areas who come together to accomplish a task

ex. bring together individuals from finance, marketing, project management, etc.

4) virtual

= a team of employees that uses technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal

-aka people who work remote and use technology/zoom to communicate and interact (job itself and communication is virtual)

9. MOTIVATION

…

motivation

= the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal (the level of motivation varies both bw individuals and within individuals at different times)

→ direction = WHAT GOAL (efforts directed towards and consistent with the organization’s goals)

→ intensity = HOW HARD a person tries

→ persistence = HOW LONG a person can maintain effort

job redesigns

= redesigning jobs to motivate employees ; leads to reduced turnover and increased job satisfaction ; improves inclusiveness in organizations

→ job rotations

→ job enrichment

→ relational job design

job rotations

= the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another (aka cross training)

- an alternative when employees suffer from over-routinization of their work

ex. new manager getting rotated through jobs to help them get a picture of the whole org

job enrichment

= adding high level responsibilities/challenges to a job to increase intrinsic motivations (and gives purpose, direction, meaning)

- good for people who score high on “need for achievement”

VERSUS JOB ENLARGEMENT

= adding more task and requirements (the combining of job tasks across the same level in a company … widens the scope of individual team members to include more tasks and responsibilities??)

relational job design

= constructing jobs so employees see the positive difference they can make in the lives of others directly through their work

to make jobs more pro socially motivating:

-connect employees with beneficiaries of their work

-meet beneficiaries first hand (allows employees to see that their actions affect a real person and have tangible consequences)

alternative work arrangements

→ flextime

→ job sharing

→ telecommuting

flextime

= flexible work hours (“flexible” work arrangements / “flexible work time”)

ex. working longer each day for a shorter number of days, 12-7 instead of 9-5, having every other friday off, etc.

job sharing

= an arrangement that allows two or more individuals to split a traditional full time job (full time = 40 hours a week)

ex. one employee works from 8 am - noon. ; the other does 1 pm - 5 pm

telecommuting

= working from home or anywhere else the employee chooses that is OUTSIDE of the physical workplace (aka remote work)

**doing work from home at least two days a week on a computer that is linked to their office

employee recognition programs

= a plan to encourage specific behaviors by formally appreciating specific employee contributions (spot awards, money, name recognition, private thank you, etc.)

-increases an employee’s intrinsic motivation work

-research suggests that financial incentives may be more motivating in the short term, but in the long run non-financial incentives may work best (aka praise is free!!)

organizational justice

= overall perception of what is fair in the workplace (how employees feel authorities and decision makers at work treat them… how people adhere to or violate rules/principles in the workplace)

→ distributive

→ procedural

→ interactional (informational and interpersonal)

distributive justice

= perceived fairness of amount and allocation of rewards among individuals (such as pay, promotions, raises, and recognition) … aka fairness of outcome

→ is it fair the way things were given out?

ex. i got the pay raise i deserved

procedural justice

= the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards

→ was the process fair?

ex. i had input into the process used to give raises and was given a good explanation of why i received the raise i did

interactional justice

= sensitivity to the quality of interpersonal treatment… aka the way people are treated

→ made up of informational and interpersonal

ex. when telling me about my raise, my supervisor was very nice and complimentary

informational vs interpersonal justice

informational = the degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations and decisions

interpersonal = the degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect