Chapter 1 US History 9th grade
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31 Terms
1
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Canadian Shield
First part of the North American landmass to emerge above sea level.
What: Ancient rock formation
Where: Around Hudson Bay
When: Prehistoric era
Why/How: First landmass to emerge in North America
What: Ancient rock formation
Where: Around Hudson Bay
When: Prehistoric era
Why/How: First landmass to emerge in North America
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Incas
Highly advanced South American civilization that occupied present-day Peru until it was conquered by Spanish forces under Francisco Pizarro in 1532. The Incas developed sophisticated agricultural techniques, such as terrace farming, in order to sustain large, complex societies in the unforgiving Andes Mountains.
Who: Native empire in South America
What: Advanced civilization with roads and terraces
Where: Andes Mountains, Peru
When: Conquered in 1532
Why/How: Built centralized empire in harsh terrain
Who: Native empire in South America
What: Advanced civilization with roads and terraces
Where: Andes Mountains, Peru
When: Conquered in 1532
Why/How: Built centralized empire in harsh terrain
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Aztecs
Native American empire that controlled present-day Mexico until 1521, when they were conquered by Spanish Hernán Cortés. The Aztecs maintained control over their vast empire through a system of trade and tribute. They came to be known for their advances in mathematics and writing, as well as their use of human sacrifices in religious ceremonies.
Who: Native empire in Mesoamerica
What: Militaristic society with human sacrifice
Where: Valley of Mexico
When: Conquered in 1521
Why/How: Controlled region through tribute and warfare
Who: Native empire in Mesoamerica
What: Militaristic society with human sacrifice
Where: Valley of Mexico
When: Conquered in 1521
Why/How: Controlled region through tribute and warfare
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Nation-states
The term commonly describes those societies in which political legitimacy and authority overlay a large degree of cultural commonality.
Who: European powers
What: Unified political entities
Where: Western Europe
When: ~15th century
Why/How: Enabled organized exploration and conquests
Who: European powers
What: Unified political entities
Where: Western Europe
When: ~15th century
Why/How: Enabled organized exploration and conquests
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Cahokia
Mississippian settlement near present-day East St. Louis, home to as many as twenty-five thousand Native Americans.
Who: Mississippian Native Americans
What: Large pre-Columbian settlement
Where: Near present-day St. Louis
When: ~1200 AD
Why/How: Thrived through agriculture and trade
Who: Mississippian Native Americans
What: Large pre-Columbian settlement
Where: Near present-day St. Louis
When: ~1200 AD
Why/How: Thrived through agriculture and trade
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Three-sister farming
Agricultural system employed by North American Indians as early as 1000 c.e.; maize, beans, and squash were grown together to maximize yields.
Who: Eastern Native tribes
What: Intercropping of corn, beans, squash
Where: Southeastern woodlands
When: ~1000 AD onward
Why/How: Boosted nutrition and soil efficienc
Who: Eastern Native tribes
What: Intercropping of corn, beans, squash
Where: Southeastern woodlands
When: ~1000 AD onward
Why/How: Boosted nutrition and soil efficienc
7
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Middlemen
Who: Muslim traders
What: Controlled Asian-European trade routes
Where: Eastern Mediterranean
When: Post-Crusades
Why/How: Drove Europeans to seek direct access
What: Controlled Asian-European trade routes
Where: Eastern Mediterranean
When: Post-Crusades
Why/How: Drove Europeans to seek direct access
8
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Caravel
Small regular vessel with a high deck and three triangular sails. Caravels could sail more closely into the wind, allowing European sailors to explore the western shores of Africa, previously made inaccessible due to prevailing winds on the homeward journey.
Who: Portuguese sailors
What: Small, maneuverable ship
Where: Atlantic coast
When: ~1450s
Why/How: Allowed sailing against wind for exploration
Who: Portuguese sailors
What: Small, maneuverable ship
Where: Atlantic coast
When: ~1450s
Why/How: Allowed sailing against wind for exploration
9
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Plantation
Large-scale agricultural enterprise growing commercial crops and usually employing coerced or slave labor. European settlers established plantations in Africa, South America, the Caribbean, and the American South.
Who: European colonists
What: Large-scale agricultural estates
Where: Caribbean and American South
When: Post-1492
Why/How: Grew cash crops using slave labor
Who: European colonists
What: Large-scale agricultural estates
Where: Caribbean and American South
When: Post-1492
Why/How: Grew cash crops using slave labor
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Columbian Exchange
The transfer of goods, crops, and diseases between New and Old World societies after 1492.
Who: Europeans and Native Americans
What: Transfer of goods, diseases, and ideas
Where: Between Old and New Worlds
When: After 1492
Why/How: Triggered by Columbus’s voyages
Who: Europeans and Native Americans
What: Transfer of goods, diseases, and ideas
Where: Between Old and New Worlds
When: After 1492
Why/How: Triggered by Columbus’s voyages
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Treaty of Tordesillas
Signed by Spain and Portugal, dividing the territories of the New World. Spain received the bulk of territory in the Americas, compensating Portugal with titles to lands in Africa and Asia.
Who: Spain and Portugal
What: Agreement dividing New World lands
Where: Global (esp. South America)
When: 1494
Why/How: Prevented conflict over colonial claims
Who: Spain and Portugal
What: Agreement dividing New World lands
Where: Global (esp. South America)
When: 1494
Why/How: Prevented conflict over colonial claims
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Encomienda
Spanish government’s policy to “commend,” or give, Indians to certain colonists in return for the promise to Christianize them. Part of a broader Spanish effort to subdue Indian tribes in the West Indies and on the North American mainland.
Who: Spanish colonists
What: Labor system using Native workers
Where: Spanish America
When: 1500s
Why/How: Justified as Christianizing natives
Who: Spanish colonists
What: Labor system using Native workers
Where: Spanish America
When: 1500s
Why/How: Justified as Christianizing natives
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Noche triste
"Sad night,” when the Aztecs attacked Hernán Cortés and his forces in the Aztec capital, Tenochittlán, killing hundreds. Cortés laid siege to the city the following year, precipitating the fall of the Aztec empire and inaugurating three centuries of Spanish rule.
Who: Cortés and Aztecs
What: Violent Aztec uprising
Where: Tenochtitlán
When: June 30, 1520
Why/How: Spanish forced to flee city
Who: Cortés and Aztecs
What: Violent Aztec uprising
Where: Tenochtitlán
When: June 30, 1520
Why/How: Spanish forced to flee city
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Capitalism
Economic system characterized by private property, generally free trade, and open and accessible markets. European colonization of the Americas, and in particular, the discovery of vast bullion deposits, helped bring about Europe’s transition to capitalism.
Who: European merchants
What: Economic system based on private trade
Where: Europe
When: Post-1492
Why/How: Fueled by influx of New World wealth
Who: European merchants
What: Economic system based on private trade
Where: Europe
When: Post-1492
Why/How: Fueled by influx of New World wealth
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Mestizos
People of mixed Indian and European heritage, notably in Mexico.
Who: Mixed Spanish-Native descendants
What: New colonial social class
Where: Spanish America
When: Post-conquest
Why/How: Result of intermarriage and cultural blending
Who: Mixed Spanish-Native descendants
What: New colonial social class
Where: Spanish America
When: Post-conquest
Why/How: Result of intermarriage and cultural blending
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Conquistadores
Sixteenth-century Spaniards who fanned out across the Americas, from Colorado to Argentina, eventually conquering the Aztec and Incan empires.
Who: Spanish soldiers
What: Explorers and conquerors
Where: Americas
When: 1500s
Why/How: Sought gold, glory, and God
Who: Spanish soldiers
What: Explorers and conquerors
Where: Americas
When: 1500s
Why/How: Sought gold, glory, and God
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Battle of Acoma
Fought between Spaniards under Don Juan de Oñate and the Pueblo Indians in present-day New Mexico. Spaniards brutally crushed the Pueblo peoples and established the territory as New Mexico in 1609.
Who: Spanish vs. Pueblo
What: Brutal colonial battle
Where: New Mexico
When: 1599
Why/How: Spanish punished survivors harshly
Who: Spanish vs. Pueblo
What: Brutal colonial battle
Where: New Mexico
When: 1599
Why/How: Spanish punished survivors harshly
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Pope’s Rebellion
Pueblo Indian revolt that drove Spanish settlers from New Mexico. The Spanish left behind some 1500 horses that became the ancestors of the horse herds that spread across the continent and transformed the lives of many Plains Indians.
Who: Pueblo Indians
What: Revolt against Spanish rule
Where: New Mexico
When: 1680
Why/How: Reaction to forced religious conversion
Who: Pueblo Indians
What: Revolt against Spanish rule
Where: New Mexico
When: 1680
Why/How: Reaction to forced religious conversion
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Black Legend
False notion that Spanish conquerors did little but butcher the Indians and steal their gold in the name of Christ.
Who: European critics of Spain
What: Narrative of Spanish cruelty
Where: Europe and Americas
When: 1500s onward
Why/How: Used to justify other nations’ colonization
Who: European critics of Spain
What: Narrative of Spanish cruelty
Where: Europe and Americas
When: 1500s onward
Why/How: Used to justify other nations’ colonization
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Ferdinand of Aragon
(1452-1516) Spanish monarch who, along with his wife Isabella of Castile, funded Christopher Columbus’s voyage across the Atlantic in 1492, which led to his discovery of the West Indies.
Who: King of Spain
What: United Spain via marriage
Where: Spain
When: Late 1400s
Why/How: Sponsored Columbus’s voyage
Who: King of Spain
What: United Spain via marriage
Where: Spain
When: Late 1400s
Why/How: Sponsored Columbus’s voyage
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Isabella of Castile
(1451-1504) Spanish monarch who, along with her husband Ferdinand of Aragon, funded Christopher Columbus’s voyage across the Atlantic in 1492, which led to his discovery of the West Indies.
Who: Queen of Spain
What: Co-ruler with Ferdinand
Where: Spain
When: Late 1400s
Why/How: Supported exploration and Catholic unity
Who: Queen of Spain
What: Co-ruler with Ferdinand
Where: Spain
When: Late 1400s
Why/How: Supported exploration and Catholic unity
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Christopher Columbus
(1451-1506) Genoese explorer who stumbled upon the West Indies in 1492 while in search of a new water route to Asia. Columbus made three subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and briefly served as a colonial administrator on the island of Hispaniola, present-day Haiti.
Who: Italian explorer
What: Discovered New World for Spain
Where: Caribbean
When: 1492
Why/How: Sought westward route to Asia
Who: Italian explorer
What: Discovered New World for Spain
Where: Caribbean
When: 1492
Why/How: Sought westward route to Asia
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Francisco Coronado
(1510-1554) Spanish explorer who ventured from western Mexico through present-day Arizona and up to Kansas in search of fabled golden cities.
Who: Spanish explorer
What: Searched for golden cities
Where: Southwest US
When: 1540–1542
Why/How: Found Grand Canyon instead
Who: Spanish explorer
What: Searched for golden cities
Where: Southwest US
When: 1540–1542
Why/How: Found Grand Canyon instead
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Francisco Pizarro
(ca. 1475-1541) Spanish conquistador who crushed the Incas in 1532 and founded the city of Lima, Peru.
Who: Spanish conquistador
What: Conquered Inca Empire
Where: Peru
When: 1532
Why/How: Captured emperor and seized wealth
Who: Spanish conquistador
What: Conquered Inca Empire
Where: Peru
When: 1532
Why/How: Captured emperor and seized wealth
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Bartolomé de Las Casas
(1484–1566) Reform-minded Spanish missionary who worked to abolish the encomienda system and documented the mistreatment of Indians in the Spanish colonies.
Who: Spanish priest
What: Critic of Native mistreatment
Where: Spanish colonies
When: 1500s
Why/How: Advocated for Native rights
Who: Spanish priest
What: Critic of Native mistreatment
Where: Spanish colonies
When: 1500s
Why/How: Advocated for Native rights
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Hernan Cortes
(1485-1547) Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztec empire and claimed Mexico for Spain.
Who: Spanish conquistador
What: Defeated Aztecs
Where: Mexico
When: 1519–1521
Why/How: Used alliances and strategy
Who: Spanish conquistador
What: Defeated Aztecs
Where: Mexico
When: 1519–1521
Why/How: Used alliances and strategy
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Malinche (Dona Marina)
(ca. 1501-1550) Indian slave who served as an interpreter for Hernán Cortés on his conquest of the Aztecs. Malinche later married one of Cortés’s soldiers, who took her with him back to Spain.
Who: Native interpreter
What: Aided Cortés in conquest
Where: Mexico
When: 1519
Why/How: Helped negotiate with tribes
Who: Native interpreter
What: Aided Cortés in conquest
Where: Mexico
When: 1519
Why/How: Helped negotiate with tribes
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Moctezuma
(1466-1520) Last of the Aztec rulers, who saw his powerful empire crumble under the force of the Spanish invasion led by Hernán Cortés.
Who: Aztec emperor
What: Welcomed then resisted Cortés
Where: Tenochtitlán
When: 1519–1520
Why/How: Misjudged Spanish intentions
Who: Aztec emperor
What: Welcomed then resisted Cortés
Where: Tenochtitlán
When: 1519–1520
Why/How: Misjudged Spanish intentions
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Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot)
(John Cabot) (ca. 1450-ca. 1498) Italian explorer sent by England’s King Henry VII to explore the northeastern coast of North America in 1497 and 1498.
Who: Italian explorer for England
What: Explored North American coast
Where: Newfoundland
When: 1497
Why/How: Claimed land for England
Who: Italian explorer for England
What: Explored North American coast
Where: Newfoundland
When: 1497
Why/How: Claimed land for England
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Robert de La Salle
(1643-1687) French explorer who led an expedition down the Mississippi River in the 1680s.
Who: Italian explorer for England
What: Explored North American coast
Where: Newfoundland
When: 1497
Why/How: Claimed land for England
Who: Italian explorer for England
What: Explored North American coast
Where: Newfoundland
When: 1497
Why/How: Claimed land for England
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Father Junipero Serra
(1713-1784) Franciscan priest who established a chain of missions along the California coast, beginning in San Diego in 1769, with the aim of Christianizing and civilizing native peoples.
Who: Spanish missionary
What: Founded missions in California
Where: California
When: 1769
Why/How: Converted Native Californians
Who: Spanish missionary
What: Founded missions in California
Where: California
When: 1769
Why/How: Converted Native Californians