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What is the atmosphere?
A layer of gases held by Earth's gravity
How thick is the atmosphere?
About 30 km (18 miles)
What are the main functions of the atmosphere?
Provides air for all living organisms.
Acts like a blanket to keep Earth warm.
Moves heat from the equator to the poles.
Shields Earth from harmful solar radiation.
Why is the atmosphere important for life?
Why is the atmosphere important for life?
It provides oxygen, regulates temperature, protects from radiation, and helps distribute heat
What are inert gases, and why are they called that?
Inert gases (e.g., Nitrogen, Argon) do not react much with other chemicals because their electron shells are already filled
What is wet deposition?
Wet deposition occurs when pollutants dissolve in rain and fall to the ground
What is dry deposition?
Dry deposition refers to pollutants settling from the air without the presence of rain
What does "residence time" mean in relation to pollutants?
Residence time is the duration a pollutant remains in the atmosphere before being removed or degraded
What characterizes pollutants with a short residence time?
Pollutants with a short residence time stay near their source, such as ozone
What characterizes pollutants with a long residence time?
Pollutants with a long residence time can travel far from their source, such as carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO₂).
What is the location of the troposphere?
The troposphere is located at an altitude of 7–17 km, higher at the equator
What are the key characteristics of the troposphere?
It contains our immediate environment, is known as the weather layer where turbulence and wind occur, and has decreasing temperature and pressure with altitude
How high does the stratosphere extend above Earth?
The stratosphere extends up to 50 km above Earth
What happens to temperature in the stratosphere as altitude increases?
The temperature warms with altitude in the stratosphere due to the ozone layer absorbing sunlight
How does turbulence in the stratosphere compare to the troposphere?
The stratosphere is less turbulent than the troposphere, resulting in calmer conditions
What occurs in the mesosphere?
The mesosphere is where meteors burn up as they enter Earth's atmosphere
What is included in the thermosphere?
The thermosphere includes the ionosphere, which is important for radio communication
What drives global atmospheric circulation?
The Sun's energy drives global atmospheric circulation
Why does uneven heating occur in the atmosphere?
More solar energy reaches the equator than the poles, leading to uneven heating
What happens to air molecules near Earth's surface when they gain kinetic energy?
The air density lowers, causing the air to rise and cool, which can lead to precipitation
What occurs to cooler air in the atmosphere?
Cooler air becomes denser and sinks back to the surface
What are Hadley Cells and where do they occur?
Hadley Cells are atmospheric circulation cells driven by rising warm air near the equator, occurring from the tropics to about 30° latitude
What climatic conditions do Hadley Cells create?
They cause tropical rainforests due to high precipitation and create deserts due to descending air around 30° latitude
What drives Polar Cells and where are they located?
Polar Cells are driven by temperature differences between the poles and surrounding land, occurring from the poles to about 60° latitude
What happens to air in Polar Cells at around 60° latitude?
Air rises at ~60° latitude and moves toward the poles
What are Ferrell Cells and their location?
Ferrell Cells are located between Hadley and Polar Cells, roughly between 30° and 60° latitude, resulting from wind movement between the other two cells
What weather patterns do Ferrell Cells create?
They create variable weather patterns in mid-latitude regions
How does Earth's rotation affect air movement?
Earth's rotation causes less movement at the poles compared to the equator, leading to the Coriolis effect
What does the Coriolis effect do to freely moving objects?
The Coriolis effect causes objects like air and water to deflect:
Right in the Northern Hemisphere
Left in the Southern Hemisphere
How does the Coriolis effect explain storm rotation?
The Coriolis effect causes the rotation of storms, such as hurricanes, to be deflected in specific directions
What causes wind to move from high-pressure to low-pressure areas?
Wind moves from high-pressure to low-pressure areas due to differences in air density, following predictable circulation patterns
What is atmospheric pressure?
The force exerted by the weight of air above a surface
What is the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level?
~1 kg/cm³
How does atmospheric pressure change with altitude?
At 5.6 km, pressure decreases by ~50%.
At 16 km, pressure decreases by ~90%.
What causes wind?
Wind is caused by differences in atmospheric pressure
What is the pressure gradient force?
The force that moves air from high-pressure to low-pressure areas
What causes differences in air pressure?
Unequal heating of Earth's surface by the Sun
How does the Sun drive atmospheric circulation?
Warm, low-pressure air rises near the equator.
Cooler, high-pressure air sinks near the poles.
What are storms in the context of atmospheric conditions?
Disturbances in normal atmospheric conditions
How do small thunderstorms in regions like the U.S. Great Plains get influenced?
By global air circulation patterns
What role does the Jet Stream play in storm systems?
It affects large storms and helps steer them, influencing weather patterns
What is the Jet Stream?
A narrow band of strong winds flowing west to east, located near the top of the troposphere
When is the Jet Stream strongest, and why?
It is strongest during winter due to the greatest temperature contrasts between air masses
What are cyclones?
Low-pressure centers where air moves inward and counterclockwise, leading to rising air, cooling, and cloud formation
How does air move in cyclones in the Northern Hemisphere?
Inward and counterclockwise
What weather conditions are associated with cyclones?
Clouds and rain due to rising and cooling air
What are anticyclones?
High-pressure centers where air moves outward and clockwise, leading to descending air and clear skies
How does air move in anticyclones in the Northern Hemisphere?
Outward and clockwise
What weather conditions are associated with anticyclones?
Clear skies due to warming air that descends
What is the Jet Stream?
Fast winds high in the atmosphere (top of the troposphere) that move from west to east
How does the Jet Stream influence weather patterns?
It affects the movement of weather systems and can steer storms
What is weather?
Short-term atmospheric conditions, typically observed daily
What is climate?
The long-term average of weather conditions over decades
How does climate change affect weather?
It can increase the frequency or intensity of certain weather events
What gases do volcanic eruptions release that contribute to air pollution?
Sulfur dioxide (SO₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and particulates
How do forest fires contribute to air pollution?
They emit carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter, degrading air quality
What pollutants are carried by dust storms?
Fine particulate matter (PM), including soil and pollutants, which affect visibility and respiratory health
What is the largest human-caused contributor to air pollution?
Fossil fuel combustion, including emissions from power plants, vehicles, and industries
What are the major pollutants released from fossil fuel combustion?
Nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter (PM)
What is the purpose of the Clean Air Act(19163)
It established regulation to limit air pollution and protect air quality
What changes were made to the Clean Air Act in 1970 and 1990
Amendments expanded its scope with stricter pollution controls and enforcement measures
Which agency enforces the Clean Air Act?
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
What industries does the EPA regulate under the Clean Air Act?
Industries, vehicles, and power plants
What are the six criteria pollutants monitored by the EPA?
Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), particulate matter (PM2.5 & PM10), tropospheric ozone (O₃), carbon monoxide (CO), and lead (Pb)
How does nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) affect the environment and health?
It forms from burning fossil fuels, contributes to smog and acid rain, and causes respiratory problems
How does sulfur dioxide (SO₂) impact the environment?
It is released from burning coal and diesel, forms acid rain, and harms respiratory health
What is particulate matter (PM2.5 & PM10), and why is it dangerous?
Tiny solid or liquid particles that penetrate the lungs, causing respiratory and cardiovascular issues
How is tropospheric ozone (O₃) formed, and what are its effects?
It is a secondary pollutant formed by NOx and VOCs, causing respiratory distress
What is carbon monoxide (CO), and why is it dangerous?
A colorless, odorless gas from incomplete combustion that reduces oxygen transport in the blood
What are the major sources of lead (Pb) pollution today?
Industrial sources; previously from leaded gasoline
How does air pollution affect human health?
Increases risk of stroke, heart disease, respiratory diseases (asthma, bronchitis), and reduces life expectancy
What are nitrogen oxides (NOx), and where do they come from?
NOx includes nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), produced from combustion in vehicles, power plants, and industries
How does nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) affect the environment and health?
Causes respiratory issues, smog formation, and acid rain
What type of pollutant is NO₂?
A primary pollutant, directly emitted from sources like vehicles and power plants
How does NO₂ contribute to ozone (O₃) formation?
Reacts with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to form ground-level ozone, a secondary pollutant
How does nitrogen pollution contribute to acid rain?
NO₂ converts into nitric acid (HNO₃), which falls as acid precipitation, damaging ecosystems
What are the environmental effects of nitrogen pollution?
Forms smog, reduces visibility, lowers soil and water pH, and reduces crop yields by altering soil nutrients
What are the main types of sulfur oxides (SOx)?
Sulfur dioxide (SO₂), a major contributor to acid rain, and sulfur oxide (SO), which is less common
What are the main sources of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emissions?
Burning coal and diesel fuel, as well as industrial processes like smelting and refining
How does sulfur dioxide (SO₂) contribute to acid rain?
SO₂ forms sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) in the atmosphere, leading to acid precipitation
How does sulfur pollution affect human health?
Causes respiratory irritation and lung diseases
How does sulfur pollution impact ecosystems?
Acidifies soil and water, reducing biodiversity and harming plant and aquatic life
How has sulfur dioxide (SO₂) pollution been reduced over the past 35 years?
Declined by 70% due to regulations, sulfur removal technologies, low-sulfur diesel fuel, and increased natural gas use
How is acid precipitation formed?
NOx and SOx react with water vapor in the atmosphere to form nitric acid (HNO₃) and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)
How does acid precipitation affect buildings and infrastructure?
It erodes stone and metal structures, damaging buildings, monuments, and bridges
How does acid precipitation impact soil composition?
It reduces nutrient availability, affecting plant growth and soil health
Why is acid precipitation harmful to aquatic life?
It lowers the pH of water bodies, disrupting ecosystems and harming fish and other aquatic organisms
How does high ozone concentration affect plant health?
It reduces photosynthesis and damages leaves, weakening plants
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