Russia - Part one: Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

what kind of leadership did Russia have?

An absolute monarchy

What is meant by an ‘Absolute Monarchy’?

The Tsar had total power over government, law, the army, and the Church.

There was no constitution, no parliament, and no legal opposition.

Authority was justified by religion and tradition.

what state was russia in at the beginning of tsar alexander II reign

Economy backward, army weak, society dominated by serfdom

what was the political condition of the government like for Russia?

Government was highly centralised but inefficient.

what was the political position like for the bureucracy in Russia?

The bureaucracy was large but often corrupt and slow.

what was the political position like for the local governments in Russia?

Local government was weak and dominated by nobles.

how much of russia did peasants populate

80% and many were still serfs

what are serfs?

an unfree agricultural laborer legally bound to the land and subjected to the absolute will of a noble landlord, effectively living in a state similar to slavery

who owned most of russias land?

Nobles owned most land and held political power

what was russias argiculture like?

Russia was largely agricultural and underdeveloped compared to Western Europe. Industry was limited and infrastructure (especially railways) was poor. Farming methods were inefficient.

what was the problem with railways?

Russia didnt have railways so it was very hard to transport things from one end of the very large country to the other. They would have to use carriages or row boats to get around which was impractical compared to the rest of europe.

when was the crimean war

1853-56

what was the impact of the crimean war on russia?

The defeat exposed Russia’s military weakness, poor technology, and economic backwardness. It demonstrated the failure of serf-based systems and created pressure for reform.

what did the war show about military in russia

Russia’s military was hopelessly outgunned.

The war exposed a lack of modern weaponry, such as rifled-barrel handguns standard in British and French forces, and a lack of industrial capacity to produce them.

what did the war show about infrastructure

The war showed an inability to move troops and supplies efficiently, partly due to a lack of railways.

It often took longer to move troops to the front from the Russian interior than it took the British to send them by sea.

what did the war expose about the serfs

The reliance on a feudal economy centered on serfdom was recognized as a massive inhibitor of progress.

Serfdom meant that the army was largely uneducated and poorly trained, which made it difficult to manage a modern army.

what did the war show about allies?

Russia's defeat exposed that it had no strong allies in Europe.

The "Holy Alliance" with Austria was destroyed as Austria remained neutral and even threatened to join the Allies

when did alexander II come to power

1855

what did AII want for russia?

Believed reform was necessary to strengthen Russia and preserve autocracy.

when was the emancipation of the Serfs?

1861

what was the emancipation of the serfs?

• Personal freedom (marriage, movement, property)

• Given land via village communes (mir)

Redemption payments

• Peasants had to repay the government over 49 years

• Land often:

  • Too small

  • Poor quality

how many serfs were freed

50 million

who were the mir?

a self-governing community of Russian peasant households

• Controlled land distribution

• Restricted movement

• Maintained traditional farming

why did they emancipate the serfs?

to stop any future uprisings from the serfs and also to be able to build a better and more educated military system

what reforms did AlexanderII impose?

legal , military, education, government

what were the legal reforms?

• Established a single, uniform court system separated from administrative power, ensuring judges were irremovable and had life tenure to ensure independence.

• Introduced jury trials for serious criminal offenses. Defendants were granted the right to legal counsel

• Replaced secret "inquisitorial" procedures with public trials, oral testimony, and open reporting of proceedings.

• JCreated elected local Justices of the Peace to handle petty cases quickly and cheaply, reducing the backlog in the justice system.

• The new courts were designed for all citizens (including former serfs), although separate volost courts continued to handle cases exclusively for peasants.

limitations of legal reforms

• Political cases often excluded

• Tsar still ultimate authority

what was the significants of legal reforms

• One of the most modern reforms

• Introduced rule of law principles

what were the educational reforms?

• the number of primary schools grew significantly, from 8,000 in 1856 to over 23,000 in 1880, improving literacy in rural areas.

• responsibility for schools was largely transferred from the Orthodox Church to local self-governing bodies called zemstva, making education more accessible to various classes.

• New university statutes granted universities autonomy, allowing them to appoint their own staff, govern administrative matters, and adopt a more modern curriculum

• Secondary schooling was opened to women, and they were allowed to audit university courses

limitations of education reforms

Despite the reforms, traditionalist views and the influence of the Orthodox Church remained strong, limiting the impact of modern curricula.

these councils had little power, limited funding, and were dominated by nobles who did not always prioritize education for peasants.

• Censorship still existed

• Radical ideas monitored

what were the local government reforms

The zemstvo was an elected rural assembly, established to manage local affairs in the provinces.

• Responsibilities: Zemstvos were tasked with improving local welfare, including:

  • Public health: Building and maintaining hospitals and clinics.

  • Education: Establishing and funding primary schools.

  • Infrastructure: Building and repairing local roads and bridges.

  • Economy: Providing agricultural advice and disaster relief.

limitations of the zemstva

• Dominated by nobles

• No national power

• Could not challenge the Tsar

what were the military reforms?

• Compulsory military service was introduced for all males over 20, regardless of class, ending the privilege of the nobility to avoid service.

• Active service was reduced from 25 years to 10 years, followed by 9 years in the reserves, making it less of a "life sentence" and allowing the creation of a trained reserve force.

• Specialized military colleges were established to improve officer training

• Brutal punishments, including corporal punishment, were abolished or severely restricted to increase morale.

• The government focused on developing railway networks to boost transport, communication, and defense capability

limitations in military reforms

Despite introducing universal conscription and better training, the military remained hampered by widespread illiteracy among the peasantry

a lack of industrial capacity

nepotistic officer corps that resisted deep-seated change.

economic developments by alexander II

• Some growth in:

  • Railways

  • Coal

  • Iron

Agriculture

• Still dominant sector

• Inefficient and backward

what were some limitations in economy reforms

• Lack of capital

• Poor infrastructure

how did the reformations improve political authority

it didnt

Limited reform of autocracy

• No constitution introduced

• No national parliament

• Tsar retained ultimate power

Key point:
Reforms were meant to strengthen autocracy, not weaken it

what can you say overall about Alexander II reforms

Alexander II introduced significant reforms, but they were limited. He never intended to end autocracy, and reforms created new expectations and tensions.

what kind of ruler was alexander II

Reformist but cautious. Became more repressive after assassination attempts in 1866. Tried to balance reform with maintaining control.

when was there an assasination attempt against Alexander II

1866

what happened in the attempt?

As Alexander II was walking and Karakozov fired a pistol from the crowd. pedestrian reported bumping into Karakozov, causing the shot to miss the Tsar.

what did this attempt cause for the russian public

stricter police, The incident spurred arrests and closure of reformist newspapers

what were alexander II successes?

• Ended serfdom → major social reform

• Allowed some labour mobility

• Helped future industrialisation

• Most reforming Tsar

• Modernised key areas (law, army, education)

• Ended serfdom

what were alexander II failures?

• Peasants still poor and tied to land

• Created resentment

• Nobles compensated → inequality remained

• Reforms incomplete and inconsistent

• Created new opposition groups

• Did not solve peasant problems

• Maintained autocracy

what was opposition like for alexander II

narodniks: Peasants could lead revolution and Russia could skip capitalism

students tried to eduate peasants and failed

Radicalisation: the peoples will -

• Terrorist organisation

• Used violence to challenge the regime

• Assassinated Alexander II in 1881

how did the government respond to opposition

The government responded with censorship, surveillance, arrests, and exile. Repression often increased radicalisation.

how did alexander II die

following a bomb attack in Saint Petersburg by members of the revolutionary group - the peoples will

first attempt damaged the carriage he was in and the second blue him up causing fatal injuries in his leg and stomach

what were the tsarist reactions to the assassination

After 1866 assassination attempt:

• Increased censorship

• More surveillance

• Arrests and exile

Reforms slowed and repression increased

what did the assassination mark

failure of reforms to reduce opposition

what was russification like under alexander II

• Less aggressive than under Alexander III

• Some attempts to strengthen Russian control in Poland after uprisings

Not a major focus but still present

what conditions did urban workers face

Workers faced low wages, long hours, and poor living conditions. Cities became overcrowded.

what did peasants face

Peasants still suffered from lack of land and heavy redemption payments. This caused long-term rural discontent.

what was the role of the church?

The Russian Orthodox Church supported the Tsar and reinforced autocracy. It promoted obedience and tradition.

Religion played a central role in everyday life. The Church opposed liberal and revolutionary ideas and helped maintain the status quo.

when did alexander III become tsar

1881

what did alexander III believe and what kind of leader was he

Alexander III was a strong reactionary ruler who believed:

• Autocracy must be preserved at all costs

• Reform had caused instability and led to his father’s assassination

• Russia should remain traditional and resist Western ideas

when was state security introduced

1881

what was the role of state security?

• Could arrest and imprison without trial

• Trial by jury could be removed

• Censorship increased

• Universities and publications tightly controlled

Significance:

• Legalised repression

• Marked the start of a more authoritarian state

what was the okhrana

tsars secret police

• expanded significantly

• Used spies and informers

• Monitored and infiltrated opposition groups

what was control of peasantry like under Alexander III

• Government officials appointed from the nobility

• Had power over peasants in local areas

• Could:

  • Overrule village courts

  • Punish peasants

Significance:

• Increased noble control

• Undermined earlier reforms (like local justice)

what changed did alexander III make to the local government

• Voting system changed to favour nobles

• Reduced influence of middle and lower classes

Result:

• Less local democracy

• More central control

what was russification like under alexander III

• Russian language made compulsory

• Local cultures suppressed

• Orthodox Christianity promoted

Applied in:

• Poland

• Baltic states

• Finland

what was the thoughts on russifications

it increased repression and opposition

what were the may laws of 1882

• Restricted where Jews could live

• Limited land ownership

• Reduced access to jobs and education

what were economic policies like under the tsar

• Expansion of heavy industry (coal, iron, steel)

• Growth of railways (including early Trans-Siberian planning)

• Government heavily involved in industry

• Protective tariffs introduced

who was sergei witte

Sergei Witte was a key government minister under Alexander III and Nicholas II.

what did witte believe

• Industrialise quickly

• Catch up with Western Europe

• Strengthen the economy to support autocracy and military power

economic strength = political power

what were industrialisation policies under alexander III

State-led industrialisation

• Government took a leading role in economic development

• Controlled and directed major industries

Focus on heavy industry

• Coal, iron, and steel production increased significantly

• Industrial growth concentrated in:

  • Moscow

  • St Petersburg

  • Ukraine

Result:
Rapid but uneven industrial growth

when did railway expansion begin?

1891

what happened in railway expansion

Trans-Siberian Railway

• Begun in 1891

• Connected European Russia to Siberia

Importance:

• Boosted trade and movement

• Opened up resources in Siberia

• Strengthened control over the empire

what finacial policies happened

• Encouraged investment from:

  • France

  • Britain

Why?

• Russia lacked its own capital

what were some successes from sergei witte

• Rapid industrial growth (especially 1890s)

• Expansion of railways

• Growth of urban workforce

• Russia became a major industrial power

what were some failures from sergei witte

• Growth was uneven and concentrated in few areas

• Working conditions were very poor:

  • Long hours

  • Low wages

  • Overcrowded cities

• Peasants suffered from:

  • High taxes

  • Continued poverty

Key consequence:
Creation of a discontented working class

what political impact did he have

• Industrialisation led to:

  • Urbanisation

  • Spread of revolutionary ideas

Workers became more likely to:

• Strike

• Support socialism and Marxism