psych exam 2

what are some characteristics of neuropsychological tests?

assess broad range of skills and abilities, understand brain-behavior relations, used to evaluate a person’s assets and deficits, overlap with intelligence tests but can indicate brain damage

What are two problems with neuropsychological (and all) tests?

false positives and false negatives

what is a false positive?

saying you have a problem but you do not

what is a false negative?

saying you don’t have a problem, when you do

What are the two types of examinations of the brain and what do they do?

Structure: damage, size of various parts

Function: what parts are functioning during specific tasks; blood flow)

What does a CAT scan do?

utilizes xray of brain; pictures in slices

what does an MRI do?

better resolution than cat scan, operates via strong magnetic field around head, more expensive, time consuming, difficult to tolerate

what is psychophysiological assessment?

methods used to assess brain structure, function, activity of the nervous system

What are some psychophysiological assessment domains?

EEG (brain activity), heart rate and respiration, electrodermal response (sweat gland activity), EMG (muscle tension), penile plethysmograph (sexual arousal)

What is an idiographic approach?

what is unique to this person, personality traits, family, culture

what is a nomothetic approach?

applying what we know about a person to what we know about people more broadly

Both nomothetic and idiographic approaches are important in…

treatment planning and intervention

what is a taxonomy classification system

classified in a scientific context

what is a nosology classification system?

taxonomy in psychological/medical contexts

what is a nomenclature classification system?

nosological labels

what are two widely used classification systems?

International Classification of Disease and Health Related Problems (WHO), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) (American Psych. Ass.)

Classical (or pure) categorical approach

yes/no decisions, each disorder viewed as fundamentally different from others, required to meet all requirements, inappropriate to complexity of psych. disorders

Dimensional approach

classification along dimensions; symptoms or disorders existing on a continuum, no agreement of number of dimensions or which are required

Prototypical approach

both classical and dimensional; categorical but indiv. does not have to fit every symp., pt much meet some minimal number of prototypical criteria, creates within-category heterogeneity

what are the purposes of the DSM system ?

aid communication, evaluate prognosis and need for treatment, treatment planning

What characteristics did the DSM-I (1952) and DSM-II (1968) have?

Freudian-based, both relied on unproven theories and were unreliable

what are some characteristics of the DSM-III (1980) & DSM-IV (2000)?

atheoretical, emphasizing clinical description not underlying etiology, detailed criterion sets for disorders, emphasis on reliability, questions about validity, many discussions were not empirical

what are some characterisitics of the DSM 5 (2013)?

emphasis on understanding that many symptoms aren’t specific to a single disorder but cut across many disorder, introduction of new dimensional measures that exist across disorders

What is independent variable?

variable that causes/influences behavior

what is the dependent variable?

behavior influenced

what in internal validity?

did independent variable produce the outcomes?

what is external validity?

are the findings generalizable to other settings

increase internal validity by….

minimizing confounds (factors that might make results uninterpretable)

what is statistical significance?

are the results due to chance

what is clinical significance?

are the results clinically meaningful

What is the case study method?

extensive observation and detailed description of a client, foundation for early developments in psychopathology

what are some limitations of the case study method?

lacks scientific rigor and suitable controls, internal validity weak, often entails numerous confounds, findings unique to individual, more inference from researcher

what is the nature of correlation?

statistical relation between two or variables, no independent variable is manipulated

why would we use correlational studies?

can’t randomly assign individuals to groups and can’t manipulate independent variable

what does epidemiological research do?

study incidence, prevalence and course of disorders

what is incidence?

number of new cases during specified time

what is prevalence?

number of people at any given time with a disorder

what is distribution?

more/less common in certain populations

what is the nature of research by experiment?

manipulation of independent variable, random assignment, attempt to establish causal relations, premium on internal validity

what is the nature of single subject design/single-case experiments?

systematic study of individuals under a variety of conditions, rigorus study of single cases, manipulations of experimental conditions, repeated measurement, premium on internal validity, lacking external validity

how do withdrawal designs work?

start with a baseline (ex: depression), start treatment (ex: medication), withdraw the treatment (stop medication)

what are the assets and liabilities of withdrawal designs?

assets: better sense if treatment caused changes

liabilities: remove a treatment that might be helpful, risk relapse

define anxiety

future-oriented mood state, characterized by marked negative affect, somatic symptoms of tension, apprehension about future danger or misfortune

define fear

present-oriented mood state, immediate fight or flight response, strong avoidance/escapist tendencies, abrupt activation of sympathetic nervous system

what are characteristics of anxiety disorders?

pervasive and persistent symptoms of anxiety and fear, involve excessive avoidance and escapist tendencies, causes clinically significance distress and impairment

what is a panic attack?

abrupt experience of intense fear or discomfort

expected panic attacks:

happened in context of obvious clue or trigger

unexpected panic attacks:

happen in context devoid of clear clue to trigger

define the diathesis-stress biological contribution to anxiety

inherit vulnerabilities for anxiety and panic, not disorders; stress and life circumstances activate vulnerability

what is the behavioral inhibition system for anxiety?

activated by signals from brain stem of unexpected events such as major changes in bodily functioning that might signal danger

fight or flight system:

when system is aroused, it produces an immediate “alarm and escape “ response

what did Freud say contributed to anxiety and panic?

anxiety is psychological reaction to danger, but tied to early experiences/childhood fears

what is the behaviorist view of anxiety and panic?

anxiety and fear result from classical and operant conditioning and modeling

what is the psychological view of anxiety and panic?

early experiences with uncontrollability and/or unpredictability; parents can pass on lessons

what are the social contributions to anxiety and fear?

stressful life events trigger vulnerabilities, many stressor are familial or interpersonal

what is generalized anxiety disorder?

excessive, uncontrollable anxious apprehension and worry about a number of events or activities; worry and anxiety interfere with functioning, persists for 6+ months

to de diagnosed with GAD, you must have how many symptoms?

3 or more (restlessness, fatigue, diff. concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, etc.)

statistics of GAD?

affects about 3% of general population, females outnumber males (2:1), onset in insidious

what is the median age of onset for GAD ?

30 (but has a lot of variability)

what are some causes of GAD?

genetic factors, high behavioral inhibition, neuroticism, high sensitivity to threat

treatment of GAD?

medications: benzodiazepines (help provide immediate short term relief), anti-depressants, cognitive behavioral therapy (better long term benefits)

what is panic disorder?

recurrent unexpected panic attacks, at least one of the attacks must be followed by 1 month of persistent worry about having another attack OR significant maladaptive change in behavior

features of panic disorder:

nocturnal panic attacks, general health/physical concerns, sensitive to medication side effects, concerns ability to function, excessive substance use (maybe), avoidance of panic cues

what are the medication treatments for panic disorder?

SSRIs preferred

what is the goal of medications to treat panic disorder?

to target serotonergic, noradrenergic and benzodiazepine GABA systems

what treatment provides the best long-term outcomes for panic disorder?

cognitive behavioral therapy

what are the defining features of specific phobias?

extreme/irrational fear of a specific object or situation, object/situation almost always provokes intense fear and anxiety, out of proportion

what can be causes of specific phobias?

direct conditioning, experience panic attack in specific situation, observing, being told about danger

what is the most effective treatment for specific phobias?

exposure therapy, building anxiety hierarchy

defining features of social anxiety disorder

marked fear/anxiety about one and social situations in which individual is exposed to scrutiny/judgment

what treatment is highly effective for social anxiety disorder ?

cognitive behavioral therapy (specifically exposure)

define obsessions

persistent, recurrent and intrusive thoughts, images, or urges that one tries to resist or eliminate

what does ego-dystonic mean

feels intrusive and out of one’s control, not consistent with regular thoughts

define compulsions

repetitive thoughts/actions that person feels driven to perform or according to rigid rules

what is the “goal” of compulsions

prevent or reduce distress associated with the obsession

what does good/fair insight mean?

they recognize beliefs not to be true

what does poor insight mean?

they agree that their beliefs might not be true

what does absent insight/delusional mean?

convinced beliefs are 100% true

causes of OCD

genetic factors, greater neuroticism, early life experiences and learning that some thoughts are unacceptable/dangerous, place too much importance on thoughts, excessive sense of responsibility, diff. tolerating uncertainty

what medications are used to treat OCD?

clomipramine and other SSRIs, psychosurgery (extreme)

what are some psychological treatments of OCD

cognitive-behavioral therapy, combined treatments

post-traumatic stress disorder…

1. requires exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury or sexual violence

2. intrusive thoughts

3. avoidance of stimuli associated with events

4. negative alterations in thoughts/moods

5. alterations in arousal/reactivity associated with traumatic events

what are some risk factors for PTSD prior to trauma?

childhood emotional problems, other mental disorders, lower education, lower SES, prior trauma, lower intelligence, female, younger age at time of trauma

what are some risk factors for PTSD during trauma?

severity, perceived life threat, personal injury, dissociation

how does cognitive-behavioral therapy help treat PTSD?

can challenge thoughts and emotions attached to events to reduce negative emotions, increase positive coping skills and social support

define major depressive disorder

5 or more symptoms during the same 2-week period and represent a chance from previous functioning, with at least one being depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure

define dysthymia

depressed mood most of the day, more days than not for at least 2 years

define premenstrual dysphoric disorder

in majority of cycles, 5 symptoms in final week before onset of menses; start to improve after onset of menses; minimal or absent in week postmenses

what are the treatments for premenstrual dysphoric disorder

SSRIs, birth control, CBT

define bipolar I disorder

occurrence of one or more manic episodes or mixed episodes (depression and mania), individual typically have or will experience a major depressive episode

define mania

distinct period of elevated, expansive or irritable mood and abnormally increased goal directed activity or energy (1 week)

define bipolar II disorder

meet criteria for current/past hypomanic episode and current or past depressive episode

define hypomania

main differences from mania is the symptoms aren’t severe enough to cause serious impairment or hospitalization

define cyclothymic disorder

more chronic version of bipolar disorder (2+ yrs), numerous periods of hypomanic symptoms and depressive symptoms that don’t meet criteria for major depression, manic or depressive states present for at least half the time

which gender is more likely to suffer from major depression?

females

what is the hallmark of mood disorders?

sleep disturbance

what is the “permissive” hypothesis?

low serotonin allows other neurotransmitters to vary more substantially and thus become dysregulated, balance between neurotransmitters important

what is the reciprocal-gene environment model?

genetically predisposed to putting ourselves in situations that result in stress and thus increase our chance of depression

what are three domains that contribute to a sense of hopelessness in (learned helplessness)

internal attributions (negative outcomes are one’s own fault), stable attributions (believing there is little room for chance), global attribution (believing that negative events will have wide-ranging effects)

what is Aaron T Beck’s Cognitive Theory of Depression

depressed persons engage in cognitive errors, a tendency to interpret life events negatively