Superpower

What is a superpower- key features of a superpower nation

• global dominance

• Economically stable

• Influence and command other counties

• Present a universal ideology

• Other countries depend on them (aid,debt,resources)

• Disproportionate degree of power (usually through having disproportionate amounts of resources) = they have the capacity to effect other countries

Definition of a hyperpower

An unchallenged superpower that is dominant in all aspects of power

Hierarchy of power of a nation

Hyper power- complete global dominance, no rivals e.g. USA (this is changing)

Superpower- globally dominant, but more than one can exist at one time e.g. EU

Emerging power- Globally influential, but only in certain areas of influence e.g. Russia, China (rising), Brazil + India

Regional power- Leads on a continental but not global scale e.g. Japan, Mexico, Nigeria

What are the ‘pillars’ (and base) of superpower status

Military, geography, ideology, politics, economic base

How does Military make a country powerful

• direct military power = threatens others + used to invade land as well as aid others during conflict e.g. UK large military

• Indirect power- a tyrant of perceived power = army size and nuclear power acts as a deterrent and defeat from/ prevent conflict

• Weaponry e.g. nuclear power= another deterrent e.g. China + Russia

• NATO- hold a lot of power as they are a group with large military power to protect territory

How does geography make a country powerful

• lots of natural resources means countries are less reliant on others and others are more reliant on then especially for fossil fuels = you have control over that country as they depend on you

• Population gives a country the potential to have power but it relies on other factors e.g. literacy and health = potential for a strong economy.

• Large pop= bigger workforce= taxes= funding for other pillars e.g. China

How does ideology make a country powerful

• If people in other countries idolize views from a country they can be influenced by your beliefs meaning you can manipulate them + influence their behaviours.

• Examples= American dream (westernisation = power) + English speakers

How do politics make a country powerful

• If they are members of large international organisations especially if they have a large weighting/ more voting power = more influential on international law= control over other countries laws.

• EU= trade bloc= trading easier therefore strengthening relationships

• Allies= intimidating

• NATO= members have a military threat on global scale

• USA- Brenton woods- nothing can be changed as US has over 50% of weighted vote

How does a stable economic base allow to build a superpower

• It is a fundamental part of power but a country with only wealth doesn’t make it powerful. Money is needed for investment in all the pillars. Less reliant on other countries + can invest in other countries (aid, military, TNCs) means culture spreads + countries become reliant in debt.

How come having all these characteristics doesn’t always mean that a country will be powerful. Why?

If you have the geographical status- resources, pop size but not a stable economy it is hard to improve the other aspects of the pillar= no superpower status. Or e.g. Russia has geographical power + military power but aren’t idolised or strong politically = no superpower

Example: some countries may have significant valuable resources but not have the ability to extract them or process them into manufactured goods.

Which countries are the most powerful

It is very hard to tell as there isn’t a universal measurement but in our calculations it is the USA.

Which countries are the current superpowers

USA comes top + the Uk 2nd and China 3rd. This means that their pillars of power must be balanced and strong. USA is a long term superpower and China is an upcoming superpower. There are other factors that affect power like cultural aspects- westernisation that may push the US on top.

Who came up with the idea of hard and soft power and what did he argue

Joseph Nye 1990

He argued that counties use a range of mechanisms of power to influence other countries

What are the names of the spectrums od hard to soft power

Hardest

Military action or its threat

Economic sanctions and diplomatic actions

Coercive policy e.g. tied aid or trade agreements

Political influence, moral authority, economic influence

Cultural attractiveness

Softest

Examples of what Military action or its threat on power spectrum (hard)

Large air, naval and land forces

Military bases in foreign countries giving geographical reach

Nuclear weapons

Military alliances E.g.. NATO

Diplomatic threats to use force if negotiation fails

Use of force

Examples of economics nations and diplomatic actions on power spectrum (quite hard)

Using economic sanctions against countries e.g. trade tariffs trade restrictions

Western cut of Russian Olicgarchs + trade tariffs to hit their economy and large TNCs pulled out e.g. Maccies

Examples of Coercive policy e.g. tied aid or trade agreements (medium)

Providing allies with economic and technical assistance

Using aid to influence policy

Using aid in return for certain action, usually which benefit their own country

Examples of political influence ; moral authority, economic influence (quite soft)

Favouring certain trade partners by reducing import tarrifs

Trade blocs and alliance e.g. EU, North Atlantic free trade agreement

Membership of and say in intergovernmental organisations e.g. WTO

Being seen to do the right thing and made morally right decisions e.g. responding to human rights abuse, tackling climate change

Cultural attractiveness

Using the media to promote a particular image and message

Exporting culture in the form of film and TV

Gradually persuading other that a particular action or view is in their interest

Globally recongnised brands

Top 3 powerful counties in world by military strength ranking

US

Russia

China

Facts of military strength of countries

US- top = nearly 900B/yr

10x more than second (Russia)

3x more than 3rd (China)

US spend more than the next 9 highest spending countries combined

Russia + China are top for increase in spending recently

What is USA aim for power

Full spectrum dominance- USA wants to be too in all military power- air, land, sea, cyber power, nuclear, money, personnel, tech

Us military has global presence= ability to act quickly to aid, support + stop other countries e.g china from expanding to much and being to big

Who are the 8 states that have successfully detonated nuclear weapons

1. USA

2. Russia

3. UK

4. France

5. China

6. India

7. Pakistan

8. North Korea

Israel are believed to posses NW but this hasn’t be confirmed

Which countries who have successfully detonated nukes signed the NPT

1. USA

2. Russia

3. UK

4. France

5. China

These 5 are called nuclear-weapon states as they are allowed to have weapons as they were built and tested before treaty came into effect

Israel, Pakistan, India have never accepted the NPT and North Korea pulled out in 2003

What is the NPT + how many countries are part of it.

An international treaty trying to prevent the spread if nuclear weapons + tech + promote peaceful use of nuclear energy + further goal of achieving nuclear disarmament + complete disarmament.

191 countries are part of this treaty.

Examples of soft power

Businesses + innovations, Culture, Gov, Diplomacy, Education, TNCs, Media, NGOs…

Joseph Nye definition of soft power

The soft power of a country rests primarily on 3 resources: its culture (in places where it is attractive to others ), it political values ( when it lives up to them at home and abroad) and its foreign policies (when they are seen as legitimate and having moral authority)

Factors that positively effect the soft power of a country

• stable economy in a time of global instability

• Global products + brands

• Leaders in science + tech

• Aid

• Trade

• Education- Harvard, Oxford

• Sustainable future

• Gov

• Hosting major events- Paris Olympics, Qatar FIFA

Factors that negatively effect the soft power of a country

• gun violence + police brutality (USA)

• Involvement in international conflict

• Confrontational politics (Trump)

• Hard power harms soft power (Russia, Ukraine, Israel)

• Lack of free + fair media communication- Ukraine, Palestine

• Politics (election of trump, England leaving EU)

Explain why soft power changes over time

• Changes in gov- trump

• Leaving EU

• International conflict- Russia, Israel

• Holding major events- Olympics, Football

Advantages + disadvantages of hard power

Advantages

• Direct, immediate way to show power

• Often immediate action

Disadvantages

• Can be short lived outcome

• Depends on scale of Country’s power- small= less likely to command hard power

• Forces one to act different= can lead to dissent e.g. Russia is hated + hit by withdrawal from other countries funds as they forced Ukraine to war

Advantages + disadvantages of soft power

Advantages

• Longer lasting + more sustained as perception are changed, lasts as ones attitude is voluntarily changed so beliefs are altered.

Disadvantages

• Takes a wile to build soft power

• Historical legacy + societal systems can prevent soft power developing

• Intangible + harder to build up

Why type of power do you think is more effective

• Overall appears that soft power is more effective in contemporary international systems than hard power strategies. Demise of hard power caused by change in world order, whereas strength of soft power is based one endurance + sustainability. Soft power has weakened recently + hard power in more needed due to conflicts so need smart power

• Smart power= draws on both. An approach that understand the necessity of strong military but also investing in alliances, partnerships + institutions. The capacity to combine elements if hard + soft in ways that are mutually reinforcing.

What is Mackinder’s Heartland theory

Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland: who rules the heartland commands the World Island: who rules the world island commands the world.

1904 Mackinder produced a geo-strategic location theory

This continental land area, protected from invasion by sea, stretches from Russia to China + Himalayas to Artic. Mackinder argued it the key geo-strategic location because it commands a huge portion of the world’s physical and human resources.

What is geo-strategic

Policies in terms of securing needed resources, both within the country and globally

Heartland theory= influential because it contributed to policies of containment:

1. Attempts, after WW1 to limit ability of Germany to expand land area it controlled

2. Post-WW2 NATO allies attempt so contain Soviet Union from expanding into Western and Southern Europe.

3. American ‘Truman Doctrine’ policy of 1940s + 1950s to contain the spread of communism from Soviet Union + China

Criticisms of the mckinders theory

in 21st century ideas seemed old:

• modern military tech can hit dee inside another countries territory- size is no longer a protection

• Physical resources are traded internationally: much less need to have them domestically

• Period of time post WW2 war + conflict seemed abnormal whereas in past this was way of gaining power. The recent Russia/ Ukraine + Middle east conflicts has highlighted the renewable of importance of hard power as way of gaining power

How has the importance of hard + soft power changed over time

Hard power has always been important- Colonial expansion E.g. British empire depend on large miliary power, WW1 + 2= hard

Examples of hard- Russia- 2008- invaded Georgia + Ukraine/ Crimea in 2014 + 2022- war with Ukraine (still ongoing)

Soft power has become for common as a way of gaining + maintaining power

Example- UK- 6th largest economy- attractive for TNCs, FDI, BBC world service- more neutral + reliable than many gov broadcasts, Culture- Pride+ Prejudice, Downton Abbey, Harry potter, City of London dominates international finance, banking, law with NY

Americanisation has played a huge part in USA’s status as a superpower (TNCS, Hollywood, IGOs power..)

Hard power is necessary but to maintain power, soft power may be more significant in the long term.

Unipolar definition

A world dominated by one superpower (British empire, US)

Bipolar definition

A world in which 2 superpowers with opposing ideologies vie for power (USA + USSR Cold War)

Multi polar definition

A more complex works where many superpowers and emerging powers compete for power in different regions

Who was the superpower(s) in 1800-1919

Britain- Unipolar

How Britain maintained power (direct/indirect) and reason for growth or decline in 1800-1919

Direct political control- ran countries

Colonialism- owned 23% of worlds land + 23% of pop, Royal Navy dominated oceans, soft power came with (tea culture, English speakers..)

Reason- able to protect trade routes . Allowed trade + interests of private companies

Who was the superpower(s) in 1919-1945

US, Japan, Uk, Germany- multi-polar

How US,Japan,Uk, Germany maintained power (direct/indirect) and reason for growth or decline in 1919-1945

Cultural diffusion in colonised countries + investment in infrastructure + military investments

Reasons- Growth in trade links, Growth in military as countries prepare for war (hard power), Decline in British economy- facing comp from industrialising Germany

Who was the superpower(s) in 1945-90

USA + USSR- Bipolar

cold war period + 89’= berlin wall fell

How US,USSR maintained power (direct/indirect) and reason for growth or decline in 1945-90

Military power (cold war), Both had strong allies, USA cultural spread (democracy), both self sufficient, Neo-colonialism- post independence of developing countries, cap vs com

Reasons- UK= decline in power (post war bankruptcy + reconstruction= can’t keep empire + anti colonialism), UK dependant of US as support

Who was the superpower(s) in 1990-2030

USA- unipolar

How US maintained power (direct/indirect) and reason for growth or decline in 1990-2030

USA- created NATO + beat USSR for superpower status but kept building military + expanded bases for control + quick aid

Reasons- USA containment policy= contain Communism after WW2 end + contain USSR= collapse + USA rose as superpower

Soft- economic, TNCs, culture put USA top ut there is now more challange

Who will be superpower in future?

USA, China, Europe??

Multi

How USA, Europe, China maintained power (direct/indirect) and reason for growth or decline in future

Smart power- need threat of direct but subtle indirect power e.g. cultural, westernisation will carry on, providing aid (IMF,WB), countries follow pro-western democracies, cultural diffusion, TNCs

Reasons- China’s investment + trade with countries in Africa. 1 mill estimated Chinese living if Africa + China has build relation with their leaders, China’s rate of spend on military= fastest but their issue= aging pop- economy rates of growth falling

What does colonialism =

Direct political power

Main may superpowers impose direct control over vulnerable territories is?

War (direct military conquest) + then impose their own mechanisms such as legal systems, culture + economics

Colonialism in the past was done to fulfil superpowers agenda e.g. exploitation of raw materials or cheap labour but recently more of a shift towards more political agendas

Neo-colonialism definition

Indirect economic control

what are the 3 main examples of neo-colonialism

Trade, aid, debt

Aid in neo-colonialism

• Aid is often given to allies who superpower wants to maintain relationship with

• Lots of aid is supposed to be paid back to the country (tied aid)- often making the country in debt to the superpower

• Superpowers often offer aid to countries who can’t decline + in future manipulate them because of their debt

Debt in neo-colonialism

• Some aid is owed back to the superpower as debt

• This cannels money from developing world to developed world, increasing polarisation (uneven political/ economics) between the 2

• Power also becomes more polarised as when debt is owed the superpowers can become more powerful over the vulnerable territories

• Debt relief schemes such as HIPC(heavily indebt poor countries) often still exert power over countries- must follow certain rules, certain policies of bankers in order to qualify for scheme

Trade + TNCs in Neo-colonialsim

The world trade system is essentially a western free trade

2 most dominant powers- the SA + EU (influence in WTO)

3 main stock markets (London, NY, Tokyo- all west)

TNCs= influence vulnerable territories- used by superpowers to assert dominance + maintain power + manipulate other countries into following certain trade rules

Low commodity export prices contrast with high prices for imported goods for developing countries= inhibits development

Military alliances in Neo- colonialism

Between developing nations + superpowers makes the developing nation dependant on miliary aid + equipment form the superpower

Break down of China’s Belt + Road initiative title

BELT- Overland silk road economic belt

ROAD- Maritime silk road

What is Chinas Belt + Road initiative

• Originally devised to link East Asia + Europe through physical infrastructure + funding of SEZs

• Has expanded to Africa, Oceania + Latin America

• Aim- broaden China’s Economic + Political influence- expand international use of Chinese currency

• Launched in 2013 by President Xi Jinping

• US + Some of Asia fear it’s a Trojan horse for China-led regional development + military expansion#

• Idea= Build series of railway, energy pipelines, highways etc

• So fa 147 countries (2/3 world pop + 40% of global GDP have signed onto projects

• China has already spent estimated $1 trillion + estimated to cost $8 trillion

Potential benefits of China’s Belt + Road initiative

• Develop new trade links for China, cultivate export markets, boost Chinese incomes + export China’s excess productive capacity

• Boost global economic links to China’s neglected Western region

• Restructure China’s economy to avoid the middle income trap (wages up + qual life up as low skilled manufacturing ups but countries struggle to shift to producing higher value goods + services)

Potential costs of China’s Belt + Road initiative

• Expensive (could cause countries to drop out)

• Lots of low income BRI countries may struggle to repay loans= debt crisis

• Connected with climate change: non- renewable energy investment has made up nearly ½ of BRI spending.

Stability of Uni-polar world

• Dominant superpower has vested interest in stability, this leads to strenuous efforts to be dominant everywhere

• In reality, this is impossible, leading to frequent, unpredictable, minor conflict + the dominant power being over stretched repeatedly

Stability of Bi-polar world

• Both superpowers need to avoid all out conflict

• This leads to Proxy-wars (wars fought between groups + smaller countries that represent interests of larger powers + may be supported by them)

• The cold war suggests a ‘stable but scary’ situation where superpowers compete but avoid direct conflict

Stability of Multi-polar world

• A mix of rising + declining powers

• Complex alliances

• Weaker powers will try to defend what they have + trying to expand

Figure on importance of hard power recently

NATO spending increased by 11% in 2024 compared to 3% in 2023

Assess the effectiveness of hard power in maintaining the status of superpowers (12) plan

P1- The effect of hard power ± (Russia)
P2- How power has changed over time- hard to soft back to hard?

P3- Effectiveness of soft power ± (USA,UK) + talk neo-colonialism

P4- Conc? Smart power

ASSESSMENT- smart power- hard is important but not alone as it can’t maintain status (USA)

MARK SCHEME

make sure to add definitions of Hard + Soft + Smart (Joseph Nye)

Historical evidence + Uni,bi,multi

Country examples + Stats

Add judgement statement to each para linking back to Qu- allows for coherent argument

How are the demographics and GDP of currents and emerging superpowers predicted to change in future?

• By 2030, likely that USA + China will be more equal in power + India will have significantly more global power

• EU could be a superpower (economy of 28 states + France + UKs nuclear threat) but has many weaknesses- rare all states politically agree= weakens global message + more ageing pop + still recovering from 2007-8 global financial crisis

• EU + Japan= ageing pop

• USA= future moderate economic + pop growth (compared to usual rapid)

• China= Ageing pop but huge potential to shift into service based + consumerism economy= growth?

Future superpowers are likely to emerge from which 2 groups of countries?

BRIC- Brazil, Russia, India, China
MINT- Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, Turkey

Future superpower potential

• India= largest projected pop- 1,520m by 2023= potential to become much richer

• USA= 3rd largest pop (360m by 2030) but mainly ageing pop= might not have the working pop to sustain its position as biggest GPD ($25 Trillion by 2030)

• China has 2nd largest pop (1,390m by 2030)= potential to shift from an manufacturing based economy to a services + consumerism based economy= could increase GDP ($22 Trillion by 2030) to become more equal will USA + more equal in terms of superpower status

SWOT analysis for emerging superpowers- Turkey

Strengths Well-educated, youthful population that is capable of working in skilled secondary, tertiary + quaternary jobs can increase output. EU candidate nation= trade with EU if it joined the EU	Weaknesses Large scale armed conflict with 35,000 deaths in 1980-90s. Might reduce chance of trade with other countries or jeopardise Turkey joining EU
Opportunities Member of NATO, so military support if required EU candidate nation= could exert greater economic + political influence on fellow member nations IF it joins	Threats Threat of war against Syria, Islamic state+ others on its borders. High cost is likely to slow economic growth Negotiations over joining EU have bee suspended due to ‘human rights concerns’

SWOT analysis for emerging superpowers- Indonesia

Strengths Low public debt- invest more money into making them more powerful Relatively functioning democracy= degree of stability Large pop= large pool of workers + large domestic market to support it’s economy	Weaknesses Doesn’t have strong military + not much economic power High urban + rural poverty Poor infrastructure throughout the country
Opportunities Youthful, educated, potentially dynamic pop= potential for economic growth Large untapped natural resources= exploited for money + trade + leverage over other countries	Threats Deforestation= could lead to lower economic growth in tourism sector

SWOT analysis for emerging superpowers- Mexico

Strengths 2nd largest pop in Latin America + 11th highest GDP 2014- produced 3.4% of worlds oil= dependence US dependant for exports Part of NAFTA trade block + has an advanced economy	Weaknesses High crime rates= poor soft power + global image= less influence Obesity= high healthcare costs Many well-educated, skilled workers migrate= brain drain, ageing pop + high dependency ratios Regional inequality Gov attempted to combat drug exporting issue + weakened their military= loss of hard power
Opportunities Slowly becoming more democratic + open for business- more moral authority Increased trade= increased GDP + better relationships	Threats Pop= increasingly obese= higher healthcare costs could lead to debt + less spending on other services Cheaper Mexican produce exploited by USA

SWOT analysis for emerging superpowers- Brazil

Strengths Large pop- 200m + 7th largest economy Strong agricultural economy + exports Energy independent in oil biofuels Young pop= potential for education, large consumer market + tax base for economy	Weaknesses Small military- only regional intervention capacity Economy suffers boom + bust phases Environmental pollution High crime rate Lacks trade agreements with other nations in the modern Western region
Opportunities Independent in oil (one of few countries) 2014 World Cup + 2016 Olympics= opportunities for economy to become culturally influential	Threats Economy growing slow due to low productivity as result of lack of investment Corruption is among highest in the Americans

SWOT analysis for emerging superpowers- Russia

Strengths Nuclear power + large military capacity = hard power Permanent seat on UN security council Huge oil + gas reserves= source of wealth	Weaknesses Extreme inequality Ageing, unhealthy, declining pop Economy is over dependant on oil + gas Difficult diplomatic = geo political relationships with US + EU War with Ukraine= economic sanctions= impact economy e.g. TNCs such as MacDonalds pulling out= geo political isolation
Opportunities Nuclear + military threat= defence + attack threat Ability to trade oil + gas= other countries depend on Russia Current geo political tensions but remains major player due to involvement in international organisations e.g. UN security council Be more powerful (on world stage) if take over Ukraine- rests on this	Threats War with Ukraine may have weakened its military Strained relationships with West= economic struggle after war + economic sanctions could limit Russia’s access to international markets + tech Lack of soft power + reliance on hard power= bad public perceptions

SWOT analysis for emerging superpowers- India

Strengths Youthful pop Nuclear + space + missile tech English is widely spoken + graduate education is widely spread

Weaknesses Possible future resource shortage especially water + energy Poor transport + infrastructure High levels of poverty + inequality Poor political relations with neighbours especially Pakistan Governing such large pop as democratic= hard for everyone to have say + prevents problems being solved

Opportunities Youthful pop= large economic potential English widely spoken= access to English TNCs e.g. call centres Growth driven by investment into tech, energy + infrastructure puts India on track to becoming 3rd largest economy by 2030

Threats Relationships with China + Pakistan= tense + pose risk of escalating into conflict= impact on region’s stability + economic growth Large portion of pop lives in poverty- addressing this inequality will be crucial for sustainable dev + social stability Environmental challenges- water pollution, deforestation = threat to health Digital + tech innovations= cyber security risk Rapid urbanisation= overcrowded cities= pressure on existing infrastructure + services

SWOT analysis for emerging superpowers- China

Strengths Highly educated, technically innovative pop Soon to be world’s largest economy + leads in fields of science e.g. renewable energy Military tech is growing + challenging USA Modern transport infrastructure Have control- people have say in fixing problems= quicker	Weaknesses will soon have problem of aging pop Pollution- air + water= issue Tense relationship with neighbours in SE Asia except Paki Rising wages= higher costs for TNCs- future pull out Relies on imported raw materials Plays a limited geopolitical role
Opportunities Heavy investment in tech= quaternary sector booms Belt + Road initiative= enhance geopolitical influence by investing in infrastructure projects across Asia, Africa + Europe= building strategic partnerships	Threats Rising wages= increased cost of products= other countries products may be cheaper + TNCs may move Shift from high growth, investment driven economy to hog qual, sustainable growth involves overcoming ageing pop, inequality + environmental issues Need s better relationships with West + SE Asia to become global influence US-China superpower rivalry

Who are having an increase share of global GDP

emerging countries (the G20)

What have been set up as alternative to WB + IMF

NDB + AIIB- where US don’t have veto power + emerging countries have more of say

What is the NDB

Multilateral development bank established by BRICS states

Bank will support public + private projects through loans, guarantees + other financial instruments + work with International organisations + support projects via bank

Allowing BRICS to deepen co-operation

Examples of what NDB has provided loans for: 4 projects in China, Russia + India totalling more than 1.4b, water quality control projects, energy conservation, technology projects (2/3 projects towards sustainable infrastructure)

what is the AIIB

Multilateral development bank that aims to support the building of infrastructure in Asia- Pacific region. 56 current members + 24 prospective.

It will address need for infrastructure through Asia and interconnectivity + economic development though advancements in infrastructure to stimulate growth + access to basic services.

What is the G20

Group of 20= international forum brings together worlds 20 leading industrialised + emerging economies. Accounts for 85% of global GDP.

Combined GDP of BRICS

US$ 16.6 trillion

Predictions for economies for 2050

Emerging markets could grow 2x as fast as advanced economies

Largest economies : Chinas, India, US

UK= 10th, France out of top 10 + Italy out of top 20- overtaken by emerging economies e.g. Mexico, Turkey, Vietnam

Explain why emerging economies are becoming increasingly important in economic + political systems

As countries dev their influence increases. Economically- emerging countries have capacity to grow around 2x as fast as advanced countries.

Politically- as they grow economically they will have more global power= potential for UN security council + creation of alternative systems (IMF + WB taken over by NBD, AIIB

Environmental governance of BRICS facts

Their dev will have higher direct impact on global emissions but if they get sustainable dev right could pave way for other emerging countries + create economic opps without destroying planet

UN climate change conference

2015- countries accounting for 98% of global emissions agreed to global climate change strategy- each country submitted plan on how to move economy on with a lower carbon pathway.

USA withdrawal from Paris agreement

Sustainability for 1 BRICS- China

Problems faced- Top emitter- ¼ of worlds annual greenhouse gas emissions. Air pollution + carbon intensive industries caused water scarcity. Coal makes up 2/3 of China’s energy consumption

Moves to sustainability- Pledged to cut emissions under Paris agreement- reduce coal use + to be carbon neutral by 2060

President Xi Jinping= pledged carbon neutrality, renewable energy sources for 25% of consumption by 2030 + China= dominant for solar generation

Why is it important China is involved in global environment governance

Such a large producer of worlds annual greenhouse gases= if they aren’t onboard we wont see much change on global level

How can theories be used to help explain changing patterns of power?- Modernisation theory

Summary- Made by Rostow Transition from traditional to modern society in 5 stages

How explains changing patterns of power- All countries follow same path so countries need to seek correct preconditions for take off + they will rapidly industrialise + increase urbanisation

Limits- Only describes process of economic change + growth- doesn’t help with political + cultural aspects needed to be a superpower Outdated + some countries have pre-conditions but haven’t developed- Nigeria

How can theories be used to help explain changing patterns of power?- Dependancy theory

Summary- Frank in Mid 1960s Developing countries export raw materials at low cost + dev countries export back for high prices + remain in control + Dev countries ‘buy’ loyalty through tied aid

How explains changing patterns of power- Superpowers exploit developing countries which limit their ability to dev. Periphery + core countries

Limits- Static theory- suggest countries are permanently stuck in undev state- rise of NIC suggests it’s more complex (Newly developed countries have freed and developed- Singapore, S Korea, Malaysia World economic structure =more complex than 2 tier world Frank suggests.

How can theories be used to help explain changing patterns of power?- World systems theory

Summary- Wallerstein- in 1970 Stressed dev should be viewed within global economic context rather than focus on individual country

How explains changing patterns of power- As global capitalist economy explained some periphery countries have become more important in world economy so now: Core reions- EU, USA, OECD Semi periphery- NIC Periphery- rest of developing world

Limits- Derived from observations of world affairs, doesn’t make predictions or offer solutions

Since when has world be dominated by Free market capitalism economic system + why

Alternative economic systems have weakened:

• Collapse of USSR (socialist)- End of cold war in 1990

• China’s move away from socialist economy towards state capitalism

• Reform in communist Cuba, allowing limited private business ownership

What does capitalism allow + example countries

• Private ownership of property e.g. homes + possessions

• Private ownership of businesses + wage based on supply vs demand + skill

• Right to make profit + accumulate wealth

• Buying + selling of goods in competitive free market

• USA, Canada, Japan, Western Europe

What does socialism (centrally-planned) economic systems allow + example countries

• Gov ownership of property + land

• Profits taken by gov + used to provide public services

• Price controlled by gov + control of supply of goods + services

• Most business sate owned + wages determined centrally

• USSR, China, Eastern Europe, Cuba

How do superpowers influence global economy through IGOs- World Bank + IMF

Description of how IGO encourages free market capitalism + free trade	Role of superpowers in IGO	Examples of how superpowers have influence the global economic systems + shown power over others
Development loans within free market model that promotes trade, exports, industrialisation + private business= benefits TNCS	Share of votes determined by quota dependant on size of economy. USA= 16.5% + 85% needed to pass an issue USA= veto power+ all WB presidents = American	Structural adjustments programmes (SAP) in 1980s: IMF + WB have loans to LDCs in debt + involved them making cuts in public spending= neg impact on LDCs (neo-colonialism??)
Promotes global security + stability + assist countries to reform economy. As result TNCS can enter easily	Similar to WB- USA= veto power	Above

Issue with IMF recent example

In March 2024 Ecuador signed an agreement to borrow $4.2bn from IMF over 3yrs provided gov would adhere to a certain economic program. It was displayed by the IMF as a reform programme aimed at modernising the economy. But the programme included a enormous tightening of country’s national budget- about 6% of GDP over next 3yrs but cutting spending on public investments + raising taxes that fall disproportionately on poor people + firing tens of thousands of people from public sector

How do superpowers influence global economy through IGOs- World economic forum

Description of how IGO encourages free market capitalism + free trade	Role of superpowers in IGO	Examples of how superpowers have influence the global economic systems + shown power over others
Swiss NGO- established 1995 Promotes globalisation + free trade with annual meetings bringing together global business + political elite	Discuss issues but no decisions made- just influence each other. Large TNCs, gives, key figures around world are invited Seen as’ rich club of global elites	Networking to influence other meeting were decisions are made Criticised of prioritising capitalism + globalisation at expense of tacking poverty

How do superpowers influence global economy through IGOs- WTO

Description of how IGO encourages free market capitalism + free trade	Role of superpowers in IGO	Examples of how superpowers have influence the global economic systems + shown power over others
IGO that regulates world trade, agreements aim to promote open trade + reduce protectionism	More dev countries have bigger say, can afford more delegates to go	Dominated by QUAD countries- USA, Canada, Eu, Japan, decisions often go in their favour- LDC voices= not heard