Studied by 4 people
Encoding
The modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory system
Storage
The retention of encoded material over time
Retrieval
The location and recovery of information from memory
Sensory memory
The preservation of brief sensory impressions of stimuli
The first of three memory stages
Echoic memory
Involves the memory of auditory information
A type of sensory memory that holds information for 1-2 seconds
Iconic memory
Involves the memory of visual stimuli
A type of sensory memory that holds information for 1 second
Working memory
The preservation of recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal
The second of the first three memory stages
Long term memory
Stores material organized according to meaning
The third of the three memory stages
has the largest capacity and the longest duration
Chunking
The organization of information into a smaller number of meaningful chunks
frees up space in working memory
Maintenance rehearsal
Where information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory
Elaborative rehearsal
Where information is actively reviewed and related to information already in the long term memory
a working memory process
Acoustic encoding
The conversion of information, especially semantic information, to sound patterns in working memory
Procederal memory
A division of long term memory that stores memories for how things are done
Declarative memory
A division of long term memory that stores explicit information, or fact memory
Has two subdivisions: episodic and semantic memory
Episodic memory
Stored memory for personal events, or “episodes”
A subdivision of declarative memory
Semantic memory
Stores general knowledge, including the meaning of words and concepts
A subdivision of declarative memory
Anterograde amnesia
The inability to form memories for new information
Retrograde amnesia
The inability to remember information previously stored in the memory
Consolidation
The process by which short term memories are turned into long term memories over a period of time
Flashbulb memory
A clear and vivid long term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event
Implicit memory
A memory that was not deliberately learned or of which one has no conscious awareness
Explicit memory
Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled
Retrieval cues
Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior
Priming
A technique used for cuing implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory
eg. showing a set of words and then an hour later, showing a similar set with some letters taken out
Mood congruent memory
A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood
TOT phenomenon
The inability to recall a word while knowing that it is in memory
Transcience
The impermanence of a long term memory
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve
A curve that hypothesizes the decline of memory retention in time
there is a rapid initial loss of memory, followed by a declining rate of loss
Absent mindedness
Forgetting caused by lapses in attention
Blocking
Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved
caused by interference
Proactive interference
When previously stored memory interferes with the learning and remembering of new information
Retroactive interference
When new information interferes with the retrieval of previously stored information
Serial position effect
A form of interference related to the sequence in which information is presented
Generally, items in the middle are less remembered than items at the front or back
Misattribution
A memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved but associated with the wrong time, place, or person
Suggestibility
The process of memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion
Misinformation effect
The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation
Expectancy Bias
A tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one’s expectation
Self-consistency bias
The commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitudes, opinions, and beliefs than we actually are
Persistence
A memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind
Mnemonics
Techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long term memory
Methods of loci
A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
Language acquisition device
A biologically organized mental structure in the brain that facilitates the learning of language because (according to Chomsky) it is innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar
Overregularization
Applying a grammatical rule too widely and thereby creating incorrect terms
Computer metaphor
The idea that the brain is an information processing organ that operated, in some ways, like a computer
Concepts
Mental representations of categories of items or ideas based on experience
Natural concepts
Mental representations of objects and events drawn from our direct experience
Prototype
An ideal or most representative example of a conceptual category
Artificial concepts
Concepts defined by rules, such as word definitions and mathematical formulas
Concept hierarchies
Levels of concepts, from most general to most specific, in which a more general level includes more specific concepts
e.g. the concept of “animal” includes “dog", “fish,” and “horse”
Schema
A knowledge cluster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in one’s life
Script
A cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings
Algorithms
Problem solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied
Heuristics
Cognitive strategies or “rules of thumb” used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks
Do no guarantee a correct solution
Mental set
The tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem
Functional fixedness
The inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose
a form of mental set
Hindsight bias
the tendency, after learning about an event, to “second guess” or believe that one could have predicted the event in advance
Anchoring bias
A faulty heuristic caused by anchoring an estimate on a completely unrelated quality
e.g. presenting an equation such as 1 times 2 time 3 … backwards as 9 times 8 times 7… affecting our predictions
Representativeness bias
A faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category
Availability bias
A faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on information that can be recalled (made available) from personal experience
Metacognition
The ability to monitor and adaptively control one's cognitive processing or thinking about thinking
Fundamental attribution error
The tendency people have to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others' behavior
e.g. The belief that people do bad things because they are bad people
Self serving bias
The tendency people have to seek out information and use it in ways that advance their self-interest.
Cognitive dissonance
The discomfort a person feels when their behavior does not align with their values or beliefs
Infantile amnesia
The inability of adults to recollect early episodic memories that occurs in childhood
Source amnesia
The inability to recall where, when, or how one has learned knowledge that has been acquired and retained
Cue dependent forgetting
The failure to recall information without memory cues
Belief perseverance
The inability of people to change their own belief even upon receiving new information or facts that contradict or refute that belief
e.g. Flat earthers
Long-term potentiation
A process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation
Divergent thinking
A thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions
Convergent thinking
When the solution to a problem can be deduced by applying established rules and logical reasoning
Illusory correlation
The phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between variables even when no such relationship exists
Recency
A cognitive bias in which those items, ideas, or arguments that came last are remembered more clearly than those that came first.
Primacy
An individual's tendency to better remember the first piece of information they encounter than the information they receive later on.
Inductive Reasoning
Reasoning from something specific to something general, which puts your thought into concepts and groups
Deductive Reasoning
Reasoning from something general to something specific
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