Cognitive Psych - Ap Psych study guide

Memory

The mental system for storing, encoding, and retrieving information

Recall

Retrieving information previously learned without cues

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information when presented with it.

Relearning

Learning information faster the second time due to prior exposure

Encoding

Converting information into a form usable by memory

Storage

Retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

Accessing stored information when needed

Parallel processing

Brain's ability to handle multiple information streams simultaneously

Sensory memory

Immediate, brief recording of sensory information

Short-term memory

Memory holding a few items briefly for active use

Long-term memory

Relatively permanent and limitless memory store

Working memory

Active processing of information for reasoning and comprehension

Explicit memory (declarative memory)

Conscious recall of facts and experiences

Effortful processing

Encoding requiring focused attention and conscious effort

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information

Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)

Unconscious memory for skills and conditioned responses.

Iconic memory

Very brief visual sensory memory lasting about a second

Echoic memory

Brief auditory sensory memory lasting about three to four seconds

Chunking

Organizing information into familiar, manageable units to aid memory

Mnemonics

Memory aids that use imagery or organizational techniques

Spacing effect

Learning is better when study sessions are spaced out over time

Shallow processing

Encoding information based on surface features, like appearance

Deep processing

Encoding information by connecting meaning, leading to better retention

Memory storage

The process of keeping encoded information over time.

Semantic memory

Memory of facts, concepts, and general knowledge

Episodic memory

Memory of personal experiences and specific life events

Hippocampus

Brain structure that helps form and store explicit memories

Memory consolidation

Gradual process of storing memories for long-term retention

Infantile amnesia

Inability to recall memories from early childhood (before age 3-4)

Flashbulb memory

Vivid memory of an emotionally significant event

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of neural connections that improves learning and memory

Synaptic changes

Alterations in neuron connections that form the basis of memory

Priming

Unconscious activation of associations that influence perception or behavior

Encoding specificity principle

Memories are best retrieved when the context matches the original encoding

State-dependent memory

Information is recalled better when in the same physical or emotional state

Mood-congruent memory

Tendency to recall memories consistent with current mood

Serial position effect

Better recall of the first and last items in a list

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories after brain injury

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall past memories before brain injury

Encoding failure

When information never enters long-term memory

Storage decay

Fading of unused information over time

Retrieval failure

Inability to access stored information accurately

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that help recall information from memory

Interference

When old or new information disrupts memory retrieval

Proactive interference

Old information blocks new learning

Retroactive interference

New learning blocks old information

Positive transfer

Prior learning helps new learning

Motivated forgetting

Purposefully or unconsciously forgetting unwanted memories

Repression

Blocking painful thoughts or memories from consciousness

Reconsolidation

Altering a memory slightly each time it's retrieved and re-stored

Misinformation effect

When misleading details distort memory of an event.

Imagination effect

Repeatedly imagining events increases belief they occurred

Imagination inflation

Enhanced confidence in false memories after imagining them

Source amnesia

Remembering information but forgetting where it came from

Déjà vu

Feeling of familiarity in a situation without real memory of it

Familiarity

Sense that something is known without recalling details

Cognition

All mental activities involved in thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototypes

Best mental example of a category

Discrimination

Ability to distinguish between different stimuli or categories

Creativity

Ability to produce ideas that are novel and valuable

Convergent thinking

Narrowing options to find a single best solution

Divergent thinking

Expanding possibilities to generate many creative ideas

Expertise

Deep knowledge or skill in a specific area

Venturesome personality

Trait involving risk-taking, persistence, and curiosity that supports creativity

Intrinsic motivation

Doing something for personal satisfaction rather than external rewards

Algorithm

A step-by-step method that always produces a correct solution

Heuristic

A quick thinking shortcut that solves problems faster but not guaranteed

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution without strategy

Confirmation Bias

Searching for information that supports your existing beliefs

Fixation

Inability to see a problem from a new or different perspective

Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems using previously successful strategies

Intuition

Automatic, effortless feeling-based judgment or decision-making

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging likelihood by how much something matches a mental prototype

Availability Heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind

Overconfidence

Being more confident in judgments than accurate

Belief Perseverance

Holding beliefs even after they've been disproven

Framing

Presentation of information that shapes decisions and judgments

Creativity

Ability to generate new, valuable, and original ideas

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing ideas to reach a single correct answer

Divergent Thinking

Generating many creative possibilities from one starting point

Language

System of spoken, written, or signed symbols used for communication

Phoneme

Smallest unit of sound in a language

Morpheme

Smallest unit carrying meaning

Grammar

Rules enabling communication and understanding

Babbling stage

Infant produces random sounds; not language-specific

One-word stage

Speaking mostly single words

Two-word stage

Child speaks in two-word statements

Telegraphic speech

Using mostly nouns and verbs in simple combinations

Aphasia

An impairment of language caused by brain damage, affecting speaking, understanding, reading, or writing

Broca's area

A brain region in the left frontal lobe that controls speech production—basically the "talking engine."

Wernicke's area

A region in the left temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension—understanding words and meaning.

Linguistic determinism

The idea that the language you speak completely shapes how you think

Linguistic influence

The idea that language affects how we think, but doesn't fully control it.

Language nudges thinking—not locks it in

Critical period

Optimal window early in life to master language

Intelligence

Ability to learn, solve problems, and adapt to new situations

General intelligence (g)

Single overall mental ability influencing all thinking tasks

Factor analysis

Statistical method grouping related mental abilities together

Savant syndrome

Condition where a person with low general intelligence shows extraordinary specific abilities