AP Psych Unit 3

Transduction

Signals are transformed into neural impulses

Gestalt Principles

The concept of organizing parts into a whole

Phi phenomenon

Optical illusion where two stationary objects seem to move if they are shown as appearing and disappearing in rapid succession

Figure ground (Gestalt Principle)

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

Proximity (Gestalt Principle)

we group nearby figures together

Continuity (Gestalt Principle)

we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

Similarity (Gestalt Principle)

Similar elements are visually grouped, regardless of their proximity to each other. They can be grouped by color, shape, or size

Depth Perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions so that we may judge distance

Monocular clues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

Examples of monocular clues

Relative height, relative size, interposition (ex: if an image covers another image then the image in front looks larger), light and shadow, linear perspective (parallel lines look like they come together in the distance)

Binocular clues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

Retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

Difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

Selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere; at the level of conscious awareness, we are "blind" to all but a tiny sliver of visual stimuli

Change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

Subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

Signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

Sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Bottom

up processing

Top

down processing

Ernst Weber

Came up with a way to approach studying our responses to physical stimuli in a quantitative fashion. Identified the difference threshold

Gustav Fechner

Founded psycho

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

Nobel

Feature detectors

specialized neurons that respond only to certain sensory information

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another/functions as a lens through which we perceive the world

Context effects

aspect of cognitive psychology that describes the influence of environmental factors on one's perception of a stimulus

Schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets ambiguous stimuli in certain ways

Schemata represent...

The ways in which the characteristics of certain events or objects are recalled, as determined by one's self

Color constancy (Visual perception/Constancy)

Tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same color under different conditions of illumination (ex: red apple will be perceived as red in well or poorly illuminated surroundings)

Brightness Constancy (Visual perception/Constancy)

Tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same brightness under different conditions of illumination (ex: white paper has similar brightness in daylight as it does at dusk)

Shape constancy

An object is perceived as having the same shape when viewed at different angles

Vision

light entering eye triggers photochemical reaction in rods and cones at back of retina, chemical reaction in turn activated bipolar cells, information is sent to visual cortex via thalamus

Pulses of electromagnetic energy (light) are received through the...

Cornea, then the pupil, then the lens which focuses the light on the retina

As light energy hits the retina...

Certain receptions called rods and cones are activated and send neurochemical signals to the brain through bipolar and ganglion cells to the thalamus through the optic nerve

After reaching the thalamus, neurochemical signals are...

Distributed to the rest of the brain (mostly to the visual cortex on the opposite side in back of brain)

How many cells does the human retina roughly contain?

6 million cones, 120 million rods

Cornea

The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye

Rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

Cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well

Bipolar cells

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells

Ganglion cells

In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.

Thalamus

relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex

Optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

Structure of eye

Feature receptors

in the occipital lobe relay information on shape, edges, angles, etc. to other parts of the brain and allow us to recognize familiar faces and shapes from various angles, colors, etc.

Perceptual constancy

Recognition of things from different angles and colors

Parallel processing

Simultaneous perception of speed, distance, texture, color, etc.

We don't actually see anything because...

Our brain is merely receiving light energy and converting it into neurochemical energy (transduction)

Trichromatic theory

theory of color vision that proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green

Opponent process theory

Theory that proposes that some receptors eliminate opposing colors that share the same pathway (red

Hearing

Process by which sound waves enter the "outer ear" through the auditory canal to the eardrum

Auditory canal

the area that sound waves pass through to reach the eardrum

Eardrum

a thin membrane that marks the beginning of the middle ear; sound waves cause it to vibrate

Hammer

A tiny bone that passes vibrations from the eardrum to the anvil

Anvil

A tiny bone that passes vibrations from the hammer to the stirrup

Stirrup

A tiny U shaped bone that passes vibrations from the anvil to the cochlea

Cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid

Cochlear fluid

Thick, incompressible, potassium

Basilar membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells; hairs lining its surface are vibrated

Basilar membrane hair movements trigger...

Adjacent nerve cells, the axons of which converge to the auditory nerve and send neural messages to the thalamus, where it is distributed to the auditory cortex in temporal lobe

Auditory nerve

the nerve that carries impulses from the inner ear to the brain, resulting in the perception of sound

Auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information

Temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language

Ear structure

Amplitudes

the height of an energy wave—in this case sound wave

Decibels

measuring unit for sound energy

How many hair receptor cells are there in the basilar membrane?

16,000; with damage to one causing damage to hearing after prolonged exposure to 85+ decibels

Pitch

the highness or lowness of a sound's frequency

Place theory

The theory that certain hairs are only activated by certain frequencies

Frequency theory

The theory that neurons fire in unison with the vibrations to match the frequency of the vibrations, which is interpreted by the brain at same rate

People can experience hearing or vision loss both...

Mechanically and neurologically

Color blindness or total blindness occur due to...

Malfunctioning cones, rods, or neural pathways (neurological vision loss), as well as structural damage to eye itself (mechanical vision loss)

Sensorineural hearing loss can occur due to...

Damage to cochlear receptor hairs/cells or auditory nerves (neurological hearing loss)

Conductive hearing loss can occur due to...

Damage to mechanical system (eardrum) that conducts sound waves to cochlea (mechanical hearing loss)

Synesthesia

perceptual phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway

Touch

Sensation that allows us to experience pressure, pain, hot, and cold

Regarding sensory priority, we are more sensitive to...

Unexpected stimuli—so any surprise touch (painful or not) will receive our full attention

Nociceptors

pain receptors; temperature, pressure, chemical

Gate

control

When errors occur in large fibers' transporting pain signals to CNS, the brain...

May create nonexistent pain from misinterpreting CNS signals, or large fibers can fail to block constant signals of pain

Phantom limbs

misleading "sensations" from missing limbs; feel in anticipation from functioning body

Factors that can make pain more or less intense per person

Psychological distractions, chemical influences (endorphins), genetic mutations

Empathy and mirroring

People are more likely to feel pain if others do

Pain can be managed through

Drugs, surgery, acupuncture, placebos, distractions, exercise, hypnosis, massage

Embodied cognition

Impact of touch on cognitive preferences and judgements

5 types of taste

salty, sweet, bitter, sour, umami (broth/savory)

5 types of taste are experiences through

Taste, texture, smell

Taste buds

200 on each tongue bump; each pore has 50

TRUE or FALSE: various tastes are detected on specific parts of the tongue

FALSE; however, certain receptors are more sensitive to one of the 5 tastes

TRUE or FALSE: psychological influences can also affect taste

TRUE

Smell functions through...

Activation of receptor cells in the olfactory membrane at top of nasal cavity

Olfactory membrane

specialized part of the nasal membrane that contains olfactory receptor cells

Nasal cavity

hollow space behind the nose

Odorant receptors

activate neurochemical signals; these are activated by the particular chemicals that fit the receptor cell

Olfactory bulb

the first brain structure to pick up smell information from the nose

Olfactory cortex

deciphers the combination of activated receptors to recognize the smell

TRUE or FALSE: psychological factors can also impact one's perception of smell

TRUE