Unit 2.1-2.5 AP PSYCH STUDY GUIDE 2026

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Top-Down Processing

Interpreting stimuli using prior knowledge, experience, and expectations.

Selective Attention

Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others; e.g., Cocktail Party Effect.

Inattentional Blindness

Missing objects in plain sight because attention is elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failure to notice changes in a visual scene.

Perceptual Set

Expectations, context, culture, emotion, and motivation influencing perception.

Similarity

Gestalt principle: grouping similar elements together.

Closure

Gestalt principle: perceiving incomplete objects as whole.

Proximity

Gestalt principle: grouping objects close together.

Interposition

Gestalt principle: closer objects block farther ones.

Texture Gradient

Gestalt principle: distant objects appear smoother/less detailed.

Figure-Ground

Gestalt principle: separating objects (figure) from background (ground).

Visual Cliff

Experimental setup to test depth perception in infants.

Linear Perspective

Monocular cue: parallel lines converge in the distance.

Relative Size

Monocular cue: smaller retinal images are perceived as farther away.

Relative Height

Monocular cue: higher objects in visual field appear farther.

Relative Clarity

Monocular cue: distant objects appear hazier or blurrier.

Texture Gradient

Monocular cue: detail decreases with distance.

Relative Motion (Motion Parallax)

Monocular cue: closer objects appear to move faster across the visual field.

Light & Shadow

Monocular cue: shading creates perception of depth; brighter = closer.

Retinal Disparity

Binocular cue: each eye sees slightly different images → depth perception.

Convergence

Binocular cue: eyes angle inward more for closer objects.

Perceptual Constancies

Perceiving objects as stable despite changes in size, shape, or color.

Color Constancy

Perceiving color as consistent despite changes in lighting.

Size Constancy

Perceiving size as constant despite changes in distance.

Shape Constancy

Perceiving shape as constant despite viewing angle.

Stroboscopic Movement

Illusion of motion created by rapid sequence of still images (flipbook).

Phi Phenomenon

Illusion of movement created by blinking lights in sequence.

Autokinetic Effect

Stationary light appears to move in the dark.

Optical Illusions

Misinterpretation of sensory information.

Stroop Effect

Interference in processing when the meaning of a word conflicts with its ink color.

Cognition

Mental processes including thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Metacognition

Thinking about your own thinking.

Prototype

Mental best example of a category.

Schema

Mental framework for organizing information.

Divergent Thinking

Creating many possible solutions; creativity-focused.

Convergent Thinking

Finding the single best solution to a problem.

Algorithm

Step-by-step problem-solving method that guarantees a solution.

Heuristic

Mental shortcut or rule of thumb; faster but error-prone.

Representative Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype.

Availability Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on ease of recall.

Gambler's Fallacy

Belief that past independent events affect future probability.

Insight

Sudden realization of a solution ("aha moment").

Functional Fixedness

Tendency to view objects only in their usual function.

Confirmation Bias

Seeking or interpreting information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to beliefs even after evidence contradicts them.

Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems in the same way that worked previously.

Overconfidence

Overestimating the accuracy of one's knowledge or judgments.

Hindsight Bias

“Knowing it all along” effect after an event occurs.

Framing

Decisions or judgments are influenced by how information is presented.

Encoding

Process of getting information into memory.

Storage

Process of maintaining information in memory.

Retrieval

Process of accessing stored information.

Recall

Retrieving information without cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information.

Relearning

Learning something more quickly the second time.

Mnemonics

Memory technique using patterns or associations.

Method of Loci

Associating items to be remembered with familiar locations on a route.

Chunking

Group small pieces of information into larger, meaningful units.

Hierarchies

Organizing information into nested categories.

Spacing Effect

Distributed practice over time improves retention.

Levels of Processing

The depth at which information is encoded affects memory strength.

Shallow Processing

Encoding based on superficial features (appearance or sound); weak memory.

Intermediate Processing

Encoding based on patterns or categories; moderate memory retention.

Deep Processing

Encoding based on meaning or personal connection; strongest memory retention.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory; shallow processing.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge; deep processing.

Explicit Memory (Declarative)

Conscious recall of facts and personal experiences.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal life events.

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge.

Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative)

Unconscious memory influencing behavior.

Procedural Memory

Memory for skills, tasks, and habits.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform actions in the future.

Sensory Memory

Very brief memory holding sensory information for a fraction of a second.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting 3–4 seconds.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of personal life experiences combining episodic and semantic elements.

Neurogenesis

Formation of new neurons, especially in the hippocampus, supporting learning and memory.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of synapses with repeated activity, making future recall easier.

Memory Consolidation

Process of stabilizing memories; hippocampus temporarily holds info before migration to cortex.

Hippocampus

Brain structure crucial for forming and consolidating explicit memories.

Amygdala

Brain structure involved in emotional memory formation and flashbulb memories.

Frontal Lobes

Involved in organizing and retrieving explicit memories.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to remember events before age 3–4.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall first (primacy) and last (recency) items better.

Primacy Effect

Better recall for first items in a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall for last items in a list.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Better recall when current mood matches mood during encoding.

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall when internal state during retrieval matches encoding state.

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall when environmental context matches encoding context.