Asian Americans Part 8

The West Coast Japanese American Community, 1920-1941

Japanese American Community (immigration, population, education, work)

• Immigration largely ended after 1924

• Community growth after that came mostly from U.S.-born children

• Population concentrated on the West Coast, especially California

• By 1940, Japanese Americans were a small percentage of the total population but highly visible

Education:

• Nisei were highly educated

• Average education level was higher than white Americans

• High participation in colleges and civic organizations

Work:

• Despite education, Japanese Americans faced job discrimination

• Very few worked for white employers

• Many worked in:

  • Agriculture

  • Family businesses

  • Japantown economies

Japanese American Generations

• Issei: first generation, born in Japan, not eligible for citizenship

• Nisei: second generation, born in the U.S., U.S. citizens

• Sansei: third generation

• Yonsei: fourth generation

By 1940:

• The Nisei were the majority of the Japanese American population

Kibei

• Nisei (U.S.-born)

• Educated in Japan

• Returned to the U.S.

Context in slides:

• Viewed with suspicion

• Seen as culturally different from other Nisei

• Sometimes distrusted by Japanese American organizations

“Generation Gap”

Refers to differences between:

• Issei parents

• Nisei children

Key differences:

• Language

• Culture

• Political outlook

• Strategies for survival in America

Issei emphasized caution and obedience.
Nisei emphasized citizenship and rights.

Japantowns (“Nihonmachi”)

From the slides:

• About 40 Japantowns in California by the 1930s

• Included:

  • Businesses

  • Churches

  • Newspapers

  • Schools

  • Social organizations

Purpose (from slides):

• Economic survival

• Social support

• Protection from discrimination

Japanese American Citizens League (JACL, 1929)

• National organization for the Nisei

• Response to anti-Japanese sentiments

• Lobby in Congress

• Advocated for the Assimilation / Americanization of Japanese Americans

• Cooperation with / loyalty to to the United States federal government

• J.A.C.L. assumed the dominant role, leadership within the community

• Promoted the “model citizen/minority” image of Japanese Americans ✓ “Exemplary citizens”

• Placed its faith in the American government and institutions

• Promoted racial and economic progress

• Conservative values

JACL – A Declaration of Policy

The JACL declared:

• Loyalty to the United States

• Faith in American democracy

• Commitment to lawful and peaceful action

Strategy:

• Cooperation with government

• Avoidance of protest

• Emphasis on constitutional rights

JACL – The Japanese American Creed (1941)

• Pride in being American

• Respect for U.S. institutions

• Obedience to laws

• Personal responsibility

It presented Japanese Americans as model citizens.

“Exemplary citizens” image

• Promoted mainly by the JACL

• Japanese Americans portrayed as:

  • Law-abiding

  • Patriotic

  • Educated

  • Non-confrontational

This image was meant to counter racism and suspicion.

Pearl Harbor

• December 7, 1941

• Japanese military attack

• Immediate shift in public perception

After Pearl Harbor:

• Japanese Americans were associated with Japan

• Loyalty was questioned regardless of citizenship

“Day of Infamy” speech

• Pearl Harbor next day

• Speech by President Franklin D. Roosevelt

• Described Pearl Harbor as a “day of infamy”

• Framed the attack as unprovoked

The speech intensified fear and suspicion toward Japanese Americans.

“Fifth Column”

• People believed to secretly aid the enemy from within

Japanese Americans were accused of being a “fifth column” despite:

• No evidence

• FBI reports rejecting this claim

“Enemy aliens”

• Label applied to people of Japanese ancestry

• Used regardless of citizenship

• Implied disloyalty based on race

This term justified surveillance and removal.

Executive Order No. 9066 (1942)

• Signed February 19, 1942

• Authorized military zones

• Allowed removal of people based on ancestry

Result:

• Removal of approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans

• About two-thirds were U.S. citizens

Public Law 503 (1942)

• Made violations of military orders a criminal offense

• Gave legal enforcement to Executive Order 9066

This law allowed arrests and punishment for noncompliance.