Exam revision- social minds- exploring human interaction semester 1

Social Thinking

how we define the self and how we think about people in the world around us

social influence

conformity, prejudice and persuasion

Social behaviour

helping, aggression, romantic relationships

Social psychology

the scientific study of the effects of social and cognitive processes on the way individuals perceive, influence and relate to others

Social processes

the ways in which input from the people and groups around us affect our thoughts, feelings, and actions

Cognitive Processes

the ways in which our memories, perceptions, thoughts, emotions and motives influence our understanding of the world and guide our actions.

Qualitative research (smaller group)

is aiming to gain an in-depth or deep level understanding about a particular topic- usually trying to understand 'why' or 'how' questions

you can do this through asking questions about experiences, meaning and representations

Quantitative research (bigger group)

is aiming to test whether a theory provides an accurate explanations of human behaviour

Schema

mental framework or pattern of thought and behaviour that organises information, helps us understand and interpret new experiences, and guides our actions

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

under-emphasize situational explanations while over emphasising dispositional explanations for other but not own behaviour. For example a cashier may seem lazy when in reality they are just overwhelmed or new. We often make this mistake because we have more immediate information about the person's traits and less about their context

Social perception theory

the theory that we make inferences about our personal characteristics in the basis of our overt behaviours when internal cues are weak or ambiguous ( how we form impressions and make judgments about others by interpreting their actions, expressions and cues like body language and tone)

Actor- observer difference in attribution

the tendency to attribute our own behaviours to situational causes while seeing others' acts as due to their inner characteristics ( you blame your own mistakes on outside situations but you blame someone else's mistakes on their personality or character)

Self esteem

an individuals positive or negative evaluation of themselves

Self enhancing bias

any tendency to gather or interpret information concerning the self in a way that leads to overly positive evaluations (the tendency to view yourself more positively than you actually are, taking credit for successes and downplaying failures to keep your self esteem high)

Appraisal

an individual's interpretation of a self- relevant event or situation that directs emotional responses and behaviour

Self awareness

a state of heightened awareness of the self, including our internal standards and whether we measure up to them

Self expression

a motive for choosing behaviors that are intended to reflect and express the self-concept

Self presentation

A motive for choosing behaviours intended to create in observers a desired impression of the self.

self-monitoring

a personality characteristic defined as the degree to which people are sensitive to the demands of social situations and shape their behaviors accordingly

Coping Strategies

efforts undertaken to reduce negative consequences of self- threatening events

internal validity

to provide a valid test of a theory, researchers must have confidence that a change in the independent variable (the factor that is deliberately changed) caused a change in the dependent variable (what you measure in the experiment)

external validity

researchers want confidence that the results of research can be generalised to other types of participants, other times and other settings e.g individualist and collectivist cultures

cognitive representation

a body of knowledge that an individual has stored in memory

Salience

The ability of a cue to attract attention in its context

association

a link between two or more cognitive representations

Accessibility

the processing principle that the information that is most readily available generally has the most impact on thoughts, feelings and behaviour

Priming

the activation of a cognitive representation to increase its accessibility and thus the likelihood that it will be used (Imagine your brain organizes information like a vast, interconnected web. When you encounter a stimulus, such as the word "yellow," it activates the corresponding concept in your memory. This activation then spreads to related concepts, such as "banana," "lemon," and "sun," making those ideas easier and faster to access when they appear next.)

correspondent inference

the process of characterizing someone as having a personality trait that corresponds to his or her observed behavior

correspondence bias

the tendency to infer an actor's personal characteristics from observed behaviors, even when the inference is unjustified because other possible causes of the behavior exist ( the tendency to assume someones actions reflect their personality or character, ignoring the situation or external factors that might actually be causing the behaviour)

superficial processing

relying on accessible information to make inferences or judgements, while expending little effort in processing

Casual attribution

a judgement about the cause of a behaviour or other event

systematic processing

giving thorough, effortful consideration to a wide range of information relevant to a judgment

self-fulfilling prophecy

the process by which one person's expectations about another become reality by eliciting behaviours that confirm the expectations

exchange relationship

a relationship in which people exchange rewards in order to receive benefits in return

cost-reward ratio

Tenet of social exchange theory, according to which liking for another is determined by calculating what it will cost to be reinforced by that person.

communal relationship

a relationship in which people reward their partner out of direct concern and to show caring

interdependence

a situation in which each person's thoughts, emotions and behaviours influence those of other people

close relationship

a relationship involving strong and frequent interdependence in many domains of life

intimacy

a positive emotional bond that includes understanding and support

commitment

the combined forces that hold the partners together in an enduring relationship

Attachment Styles

peoples basic securely attached, avoidant or anxious orientation toward others in close relationships

social support

emotional and physical coping resources provided by other people

Health concordance

researchers have found that couples often have similar or concordant health issues

concordant behaviours

couples are highly consistent in the healthy/unhealthy behaviours they perform, and a change in one partners health behaviour is often associated with a change in the other's partner's behaviour

behavioural convergence

those in relationships share a lifestyle as well as common stressors e.g common living environment, pool resources, eat together, share social networks

Cortisol

a hormone that regulates a wide range of processes throughout the body

intimacy groups

groups that are closely tied together

task groups

groups that come together temporarily to achieve a specific goal

common bond groups

members have close personal bonds within the group

common identity groups

members have close personal ties to the group itself

group socialisation

the dynamic nature of a group over time, coming together to meet each other's needs and accomplish goals

social norms

the uniformities of behaviour and attitudes that determine, organise and differentiate groups from other groups

descriptive norms

norms that most people follow, whether they are right or wrong

injunctive norms

norms that are perceived as being approved of by other people

social roles

shared expectations of how people in a group are supposed to behave

Deviants (Marginal Group Members)

people who have deviated too far from the group norms

Imposters

people who pose as legitimate group member but are not posing a threat to the group

stereotypes

simplified but widely shared beliefs about the characteristics of groups and their members

prejudice

any positive or negative evaluation or its members (most often discussed in terms of the negative affective reaction towards a group)

discrimination

unequal treatment of different people based on the groups or categories to which they belong (most often discussed in terms of others being treated less well because of their group membership)

Social group

two or more people who share some common characteristic that is socially meaningful for themselves or for others

social categorization

the process of identifying individual people as members of a social group because they share certain features that are typical of the group ( a natural, automatic mental process where people sort themselves and others into groups based on shared characteristics like age, gender, race or occupation)

illusory correlation

people perceive a relationship between variables (typically people, events, or behaviours) even when no such relationship exists (seeing a connection between two things that aren't actually related, often because they happen together by chance, making them seem linked in our minds)

Social identity theory

theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self categorisation, social comparison, and the shared construction of a shared self- defintion in terms of in-group defining properties. (we define ourselves partly by the groups we belong to, seeking positive feelings by seeing our group as better than other groups leading to us vs them thinking)

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

reaction time test to measure attitudes- particularly unpopular attitudes that people might conceal

outgroup homogeneity effect

tendency to see people within a same group as being more 'similar' than they really are

motives behind stereotyping

mastery, connectedness, justifying the social structure

hostile sexism

women pose a threat to men's position

benevolent sexism

women are wonderful and necessary for men's happiness

confirmation bias

search for, interpret, favour, and recall information in a way that confirms one's pre- existing beliefs.

Just world hypothesis

people have a need to believe that their environment is just an orderly place, where people usually get what they deserve

Tokenism

performing positive action towards members of minority or disadvantaged groups as a reaction to the discrimination they suffer

affirmative action

a collective name for policies designed to promote the employment of people from disadvantaged minority groups

positive feedback bias

The process of giving more positive feedback (or less critical feedback) on work believed to have been performed by a minority group member rather than a majority group member. (a tendency to focus on, remember or provide more favourable information and overlook negative aspects, often resulting in an unbalanced and overly optimistic perspective)

contact hypothesis

the theory that certain types of direct contact between members of hostile groups will reduce stereotyping and prejudice

extended contact effect

finding that people are less prejudiced if they are friends with an ingroup member who they know to have good friendships with outgroup members (If you know one of your friends (ingroup) is good friends with someone from a rival group (outgroup), you are more likely to think positively about that rival group as a whole. You see your friend as a bridge to the other group, which makes that group feel less threatening and more familiar)

stress

the physiological or psychological response to internal or external stressors

Stressor

an environmental stimulus or event that causes stress

social support

the provision of assistance or comfort to others, typically to help them cope with biological, psychological, and social stressors

the buffering hypothesis

The protection against stressful experiences that is afforded by an individual's social support. (the buffering hypothesis states that social support is a protective resource that is most beneficial during times of high stress, but not necessarily when stress levels are low)

contact theory 1954 (Allport)

bringing together members of opposing groups should improve intergroup relations

optimal conditions

- equality of status

- common goals

- intergroup co-operation

- support of authorities, law or custom

contacts works even when all conditions are not met

proposes that prejudice between social groups can be reduced through positive, structured contact, specifically when four conditions are met. This theory suggests that meaningful interaction helps individuals overcome stereotypes and fosters mutual understanding, influencing social policy and integration efforts.

stereotype threat theory (Steele, 1997)

when people are tested and belong to a group that is not stereotypically expected to do well, they become anxious and confirm the stereotype

This anxiety interferes with their performance- causing them to fall precisely into the trap that they were so anxious to avoid. For example, girls do worse in maths test when they are made aware of the stereotype that girls are not as good at maths as boys.

the opposite of stereotype threat is stereotype lift. Stereotype lift- fulfilling a positive stereotype leads to enhanced performance.

The social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) (Holmes and Rahe, 1967)

a tool listing 43 key life events, each assigned life change units based on the degree of stress and readjustment required.

some of the life events include: death of spouse, minor violation of the law

realistic conflict theory (Sherif, 1954, 1958, 1961)

intergroup conflict is the outcome of a conflict between an in-group and an out-group

negative prejudices and stereotypes are the result of competition between groups for desired resources

conflict of interest generates negative attitudes and behaviours towards other group members

Realistic conflict theory states that whenever there are two or more groups that are seeking the same limited resources, this will lead to conflict, negative stereotypes and beliefs, and discrimination between the groups. The conflict can lead to increasing animosity toward the groups and can cause an ongoing feud to develop.

case study of Rwanda (Paluck, 2009)

10% of population (75% Tutsi minority)

killed in 1994

radio communication fuelled the conflict

In 1994, between 500,000 and one million Rwandans were massacred in a genocide when the Hutu extremist-led government launched a plan to wipe out the country's entire Tutsi minority and any others who opposed their policies.

Kelley's Attribution Theory 1967

people decide what attributions to make after considering the consistency, distinctiveness and consensus of a persons behaviour

Kelley proposed that people make attributions based on three types of information: consensus (do others behave the same way), distinctiveness (does the person behave this way in different situations), and consistency (does the person behave this way repeatedly over time).

Asch's configuration model 1946

Asch's configural model suggests that people form a unified, holistic impression of others, where individual traits are integrated into a complete picture, and the meaning of any single trait is influenced by the overall context of the other traits.

Think of the difference between a list of ingredients and a finished dish.

The configural model recognizes that the way the ingredients are combined and cooked changes their individual flavors and creates a new, unified taste experience (the overall personality impression) that cannot be predicted by simply adding up the ingredients.

a series of conformity experiments by Solomon Asch designed to investigate how social pressure from a majority group could influence an individual to conform. In the experiments, groups of participants were asked to match the length of lines on cards, a task with an obvious answer.

Social comparison theory (Festinger 1954)

the theory that people learn about and evaluate their personal qualities by comparing themselves to others.

The impact of social comparison is significant, especially among children and adolescents who often gauge their self-worth against the standards set by their peers and the media. This can lead to negative outcomes, such as body dissatisfaction and an increased risk of eating disorders, as young people grapple with unrealistic beauty ideals often portrayed in magazines and on social media. Understanding social comparison theory can provide insights into human behaviour, self-esteem, and the psychological effects of societal pressures, highlighting the need for awareness and sensitivity regarding these comparisons in diverse contexts.

Self perception theory (Bem 1967)

Self perception theory is the theory that people learn about the self by examining their own thoughts, feelings and behaviours

Individuals infer their own attitudes, emotions and traits by observing their own behaviour.

Key principles

Behaviour - attitude

occurs when internal cues are weak

external justification matters

Taylor and Fiske 1975- salience study

people overestimate the importance of information that is salient (stands out, grab attention) when forming judgments about others, even when that information is not actually more casual or informative

Taylor and Fiske showed participants a conversation between two people:

- one person was visually salient

- the other was less visible

Findings:

the salient person was judged as:

- more casual

- more dominant

- more responsible for the direction of the conversation

Langlois and Roggman's "Averageness hypothesis"

proposes that faces with average, non- extreme features are perceived as more attractive because they are more familiar and easier to process cognitively and signals genetic health.

The looking glass effect (Coolie 1902)

the looking- glass self describes how one's self or social identity is dependent on one's appearance to others. This initial theory was based on Cooley's observations of childhood social development

The looking- glass self is a sociological concept that one's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others, meaning people shape themselves based on how other people see and judge them.

Miller, brickman and bolen 1975

Miller, brickman and bolen showed that how adults explain childrens behaviour can change childrens motivation

builds on attribution theory and self- perception theory

Interdependence theory (Kelly and Thibaut 1978)

Interdependence theory rewards how people evaluate, maintain, or leave relationships based on rewards, costs and available alternatives, and how outcomes depend on both partners choices.

strengths

- clear testable framework

- strong predictive power for relationship stability

highly influential in relationship research

limitations

- assumes rational cost- benefit analysis

- underestimates:

- emotions

- moral commitment

- cultural differences

- less effective at explaining altruistic behaviour

The investment model ( Rusbult 1980)

the investment model was put forward by Rusbult as a development of Social exchange theory.

It explains commitment in relationships by proposing commitment depends on three factors:

1. satisfaction level

2. quality of alternatives

3. investment size