The Psychology of Learning

SACE Stage 2 Psychology

What is learning in the context of psychology?

A relatively permanent change in thinking and behaviour, gained through study, experience, or being taught.

What are the two forms of learning?

Instinctual/innate (survival) and the other involves complex interactions of conscious and unconscious processes

What are the two types of learning mentioned in the notes?

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning via the repeated association of two or more normally unrelated stimuli, causing a new conditioned response. (the response if already involuntary/reflex)

Who discovered classical conditioning?

Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov.

What was Ivan Pavlov studying when he discovered classical conditioning?

The digestive systems of dogs.

What involuntary response did Pavlov's dogs exhibit when they associated the sound of a bell with food?

Salivation.

What are the three phases of classical conditioning according to Pavlov?

Before conditioning (NS-bell=no response and UCS-food=UCR-salivation), during conditioning (repetitive pairing of NS and UCS), and after conditioning. (CS-bell=CR-salivation without UCS)

What is the neutral stimulus in Pavlov's experiment?

The bell, which initially elicits no response from the dogs.

What is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in Pavlov's experiment?

Food, which naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) of salivation.

What happens during the conditioning phase in Pavlov's experiment?

The neutral stimulus (bell) is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food) to elicit salivation.

What is the conditioned stimulus (CS) after conditioning in Pavlov's experiment?

The bell, which now elicits a conditioned response (CR) of salivation without food.

What was the goal of Watson and Raynor's experiment with Little Albert?

To demonstrate that classical conditioning could create fear as a learned response.

What was Little Albert's age during the experiment conducted by Watson and Raynor?

9 months old.

What was the emotional state of Little Albert prior to the experiment?

He was stable emotionally.

What objects were placed in front of Little Albert to determine a NS?

A white rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, masks with and without hair, cotton wool, burning newspaper

What happened before, during and after conditioning in the Little Albert Experiment?

Before: NS (white rate) = no fear response from Albert. UCS (loud noise) = UCR (crying/fear), During: repetition of pairing NS (white rat) and UCS (loud banging), After: CS (white rat) = CR (crying/fear) even without UCS (loud noise)

What is an example of instinctual learning mentioned in the notes?

Newborn babies sucking when presented with a nipple or bottle teat.

What is the difference between instinctual learning and classical conditioning?

Instinctual learning is innate and automatic, while classical conditioning involves learned associations between stimuli.

What is an example of a conditioned response in classical conditioning?

Salivation in response to the bell after conditioning.

What does the term 'neutral stimulus' (NS) refer to?

A stimulus that does not evoke a response at first, however becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with the unconditioned stimulus

What does the term 'unconditioned stimulus' (UCS) refer to?

A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response.

What does the term 'unconditioned response' (UCR) refer to?

A natural reflexive response to an unconditioned stimulus, such as salivating when food is presented.

What does the term 'conditioned stimulus' (CS) refer to?

A previously neutral stimulus (NS) that now produces a classically conditioned (learned) response.

What does the term 'conditioned response' (CR) refer to?

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus, such as salivating at the sound of a bell.

What significant change occurs after the conditioning process in Pavlov's experiment?

The dog learns to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, without the presence of food.

What ethical concerns are raised by Watson and Raynor's experiment with Little Albert?

The use of a child in a psychological experiment to induce fear raises ethical issues regarding consent and emotional harm.

What is the significance of Pavlov's work in psychology?

It laid the foundation for behaviorism and the understanding of how associative learning occurs.

What is the role of repetition in classical conditioning?

Repetition of pairing the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus is essential for establishing a conditioned response.

What is the main focus of the topic 'Personal Differences' in the context of learning?

It likely addresses how individual variations affect learning processes.

What was the neutral stimulus in the Little Albert experiment before conditioning?

The white rat.

What was the unconditioned stimulus in the Little Albert experiment?

The loud noise.

What was Little Albert's unconditioned response to the loud noise?

Crying or fear.

What occurred during the conditioning phase of the Little Albert experiment?

The white rat (neutral stimulus) was paired with the loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) multiple times.

What was the conditioned response observed in Little Albert after conditioning?

Crying and avoiding the white rat without the loud noise.

What is the definition of a conditioned stimulus?

A previously neutral stimulus that now produces a learned response.

What is the definition of a conditioned response?

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

What is stimulus generalization in classical conditioning?

The tendency for a conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

What is stimulus discrimination in classical conditioning?

The ability to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli. Only responds to the original CS.

What does extinction refer to in classical conditioning?

The process by which the conditioned response organically decreases or disappears when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

What is contiguity in the context of classical conditioning?

The principle that the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus must be presented close together in time for conditioning to occur.

What is contingency in classical conditioning?

The predictability of occurrence of one stimulus from the presence of another. For strong CR to occur, NS and UCS needs to remain predictable and consistent.

What is preparedness in classical conditioning?

The idea that certain associations are more easily learned than others due to evolutionary factors.

What is the difference between fear and phobia?

Fear is an unpleasant emotion caused by a perceived threat, while a phobia is an irrational and excessive fear that disrupts normal functioning.

What was the outcome of the Little Albert study in terms of phobia?

Albert developed a phobia of the white rat and similar stimuli after conditioning.

What is the acquisition phase in classical conditioning?

The initial stage of learning when the association between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus is being established.

What is the performance phase in classical conditioning?

The phase where the conditioned response is exhibited in response to the conditioned stimulus.

What did Little Albert's parents do before his phobia could be extinguished?

They withdrew him from the study.

How many pairings of the rat and noise were conducted in the Little Albert experiment?

Seven pairings.

What was the significance of the hammer striking the steel bar in the experiment?

It served as the unconditioned stimulus that elicited fear in Little Albert.

What is the importance of the Little Albert experiment in psychology?

It provided evidence for classical conditioning and the development of phobias.

What is a phobia?

An extreme and/or irrational fear of or aversion to a stimulus that negatively impacts everyday functioning.

How do phobias affect behavior?

Phobias lead to avoidance of the feared stimulus to reduce short-term fear, but this avoidance can increase the phobia.

What is the aim of systematic desensitization?

A behavioural therapeutic tool widely used to modify learned behaviours associated with phobias. Aimed to replace the conditioned response of fear with relaxation through a behavioral therapeutic approach.

What are the three steps of systematic desensitization?

1. Teach relaxation techniques, 2. Develop an anxiety hierarchy, 3. Pair relaxation with exposure to the feared stimulus.

What is the first step in systematic desensitization?

The person is taught relaxation techniques to reduce physiological responses.

What are some examples of relaxation techniques used in systematic desensitization?

Muscle relaxation, box breathing, counting to 10, meditation, visualization of a safe place.

What is the purpose of developing an anxiety hierarchy in systematic desensitization?

To create a list of fears ranked from least to most fearful, which guides the exposure process.

What is an example of an anxiety hierarchy for spiders?

1. Looking at a picture of a spider, 2. Seeing a spider on TV, 3. Seeing a spider in a pet store, 4. Holding a glass box with a spider, 5. Holding a spider.

What happens in the third step of systematic desensitization?

The person pairs relaxation techniques with exposure to the first item on their anxiety hierarchy.

What are some advantages of systematic desensitization?

It is a gradual process of extinguishing strong conditioned responses and is considered more ethical.

What are some disadvantages of systematic desensitization?

It can be slow, expensive, and there is a risk of it not being effective.

What is cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)?

A psychological therapy that creates a safe environment for exposure to avoided stimuli and teaches clients to manage distorted thoughts and actions.

What are the goals of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)?

To help clients understand, manage, and change their distorted thoughts and actions, and develop coping strategies.

What are the advantages of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)?

It offers longer-term success, can be reused if symptoms resurface, and is easily generalizable.

What are the disadvantages of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)?

It can be difficult to change thought processes for severe phobias, is more confronting, and can be expensive.

What is operant conditioning?

A learning process where the strength of a behavior is modified by the consequences that follow it, involving learning through reward or punishment.

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

Operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors, while classical conditioning involves involuntary behaviors.

Who was the pioneer of operant conditioning?

B.F. Skinner.

What was the purpose of Skinner's experiments with rats and pigeons?

To demonstrate how behaviors could be modified through reinforcement and punishment.

What is the principle behind Skinner's reinforcement theory?

Behaviors followed by pleasant consequences are likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

What is a 'Skinner Box'?

A chamber designed by B.F. Skinner to study operant conditioning by placing animals inside and using reinforcement or punishment to change their behavior.

What is a reinforcer in the context of behavior?

Any stimulus (action or event) that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior.

What is a punisher?

Any stimulus that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

What is the Skinner Box used for?

It is used to condition rats through positive or negative reinforcement.

What is reinforcement in operant conditioning?

A process that increases the frequency of a targeted behavior.

What are the two types of reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

What is positive reinforcement?

A pleasant stimulus added after a desired behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Give an example of positive reinforcement.

A rat pressing a lever to receive a food pellet, leading to more lever pressing.

What is negative reinforcement?

An unpleasant stimulus removed after a desired behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Give an example of negative reinforcement.

A rat pressing a lever to turn off an electric shock, leading to more lever pressing when shocked.

What is punishment in operant conditioning?

A stimulus or event that decreases the frequency of a behavior that it follows.

What are the two types of punishment?

Aversive punishment and response cost.

What is aversive punishment?

An unpleasant stimulus added after an undesired behavior to reduce that behavior.

Give an example of aversive punishment.

Speeding results in a fine, which reduces speeding in the future.

What is response cost?

A pleasant stimulus removed after an undesirable behavior to reduce that behavior.

Give an example of response cost.

Speeding results in a driver's license being taken away, which reduces future speeding.

What is the main difference between reinforcement and punishment?

Reinforcement focuses on increasing a desired behavior, while punishment focuses on reducing an unwanted behavior. Therefore, reinforcement is preferential when trying to change behaviours.

What are the advantages of using reinforcement?

It teaches correct behaviors, motivates future actions, and improves self-esteem.

What are the disadvantages of punishment?

It tells what NOT to do, can lead to resentment, aggression, and does not teach correct behavior.

What conditions make punishment most effective?

It should be brief, immediate, and linked to the undesired behavior.

What is contiguity in operant conditioning?

The principle that behaviors and their consequences (reinforcement/punishment) are closely linked in time.

What is contingency in operant conditioning?

The dependence created between a behavior and its reinforcer, teaching the link between them.

What are natural consequences in operant conditioning?

A natural connection between a behavior and a response, such as pushing a door to open it.

What are accidental circumstances in operant conditioning?

Superstitions or beliefs connecting a behavior and a response, like wearing lucky boots for a game.

What is shaping in the context of operant conditioning?

Shaping is a method used to teach increasingly complex behaviors through positive reinforcement by rewarding small steps that lead to a larger goal.

What is the role of preparedness in learning behaviors?

Preparedness refers to the ease with which the behaviour is learned as it aligns with their biological predispositions, making some behaviors easier to shape than others.

Which type of reinforcement is generally easier to shape: reinforcement or punishment?

Reinforcement is shaped more easily than punishment.

What is the acquisition phase in operant conditioning?

When the reinforce/punisher is being administered with an increase/decrease is behaviour. Acquiring a new behaviour

What is the performing phase in operant conditioning?

When the subsequent behaviour is performed without the reinforcer/punisher being administered. Performing newly learnt behaviour.