AP European History Unit 7: 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments (1815-1914)

Positivism

The idea that any rational conclusion must be able to be scientifically verified through mathematical quantification; this idea emerges as a threat to religion/metaphysical beliefs; truth is relative

relativism

The philosophical viewpoint that knowledge and truth are not absolute but instead are relative to the social, cultural, or historical context in which they arise.

Modernism

A cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by a break from traditional forms and an embrace of new artistic and literary styles reflecting modern life and experiences.

Irrationalism

The philosophical stance that emphasizes the role of emotion, intuition, and non-rational elements in human experience, often critiquing rationalism and positivism; focused on the belief that human life and decisions couldn’t be understood by rational postulates, but rather had to focus on an ethereal quality of the spirit

Freidrich Nietzsche

A German philosopher known for his critique of traditional morality and religion; argued that people are motivated by their irrational instincts; claimed that god was dead and that the Europeans of his age had killed him, and that created the possible liberation of humanity

Henri Bergson

A French philosopher known for his ideas on intuition and immediate experience over rational thought. He emphasized the importance of life as a dynamic process, arguing that true understanding comes from intuition rather than intellectual analysis.

Sigmund Freud

applied ideas of irrationalism to the internal world; human behavior was not governed by the rational choice of the individual, but rather by the subconscious person which was shaped by the experiences of childhood; developed psychoanalysis

Max Planck

discovered that atoms radiated heat not in constant flows but in erratic packets called quanta which led to the development of quantum theory, fundamentally changing our understanding of physics; contributed to irrationalism in the natural sciences

Romantic Art

An artistic movement contrasting with the rationalism of the Enlightenment and the classical precision of neoclassical art; prized raw emotion and subjectivity as a higher subject of artistic expression; emphasized emotion, nature, individualism, intuition, the supernatural, and national histories

Eugene Delacroix

A prominent French Romantic artist known for his vivid use of color and expressive compositions that often featured dramatic and exotic subjects, embodying the emotional intensity central to Romanticism

Caspar David Friedrich

A German painter associated with the Romantic movement, known for his landscapes that evoke deep emotion and reflect on nature's beauty and individual experience.

William Wordsworth

An English poet and a key figure in the Romantic movement, known for his emphasis on nature, emotion, and the celebration of the individual experience through his poetry.

William Blake

An English poet, painter, and printmaker associated with the Romantic movement, known for his visionary works that often explore themes of innocence and experience, as well as his unique illustrations and ideas about spirituality.

Francisco Goya

A Spanish painter and printmaker known for his expressive and sometimes dark representations of human emotions, social commentary, and the horrors of war, blending Romanticism and earlier traditions; a focus on national history

Tchaicovsky

A Russian composer known for his emotive music and contributions to ballet, particularly works like "Swan Lake" and "The Nutcracker." His compositions often reflect a deep exploration of human emotion and narrative, thereby reflecting Romanticism

Realism

A movement in art and literature that emerged in the mid-19th century, replacing Romanticism, characterized by the depiction of everyday life and ordinary people with an emphasis on accuracy and truth.

Gustave Courbet

A French painter regarded as a leading figure in the Realism movement, known for his bold, unidealized representations of everyday subjects and social issues, emphasizing the life and struggles of common people.

Jean-Francois Millet

A French painter associated with the Realism movement, renowned for his depictions of rural life and labor, particularly in works like "The Gleaners" and "The Angelus," highlighting the dignity of peasant life.

Honore de Balzac

A French novelist and playwright in the Realism movement best known for laying the foundations for the modern novel by writing characters who were both common and complex.

Charles Dickens

A British novelist and social critic in the Realism movement known for his vivid characters and depictions of Victorian society, exploring themes of social justice and the struggles of the poor; inspired by Honore de Balzac

Modern Art

as the technology of photography was gaining widespread use, painters no longer felt the need to produce their subjects in a realistic fashion but instead shifted to more abstract, subjective interpretations of their subjects

Impressionism

A late 19th-century art movement that focused on capturing light and momentary effects through loose brushwork and vibrant colors, not necessarily realism, in order to invoke emotion

Post-Impressionism

An art movement that emerged as a reaction to Impressionism, emphasizing personal expression and a focus on abstract forms, line, and color rather than capturing a momentary effect; also sought to invoke emotion

Cubism

An early 20th-century art movement characterized by fragmented forms and multiple viewpoints, pioneered by artists like Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, which abandoned perspective and traditional representation in favor of abstract, geometric shapes.

Pablo Picasso

A Spanish painter and sculptor, co-founder of the Cubist movement, known for his innovative approaches to art and numerous influential works, including "Guernica" and "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon."

Scramble for Africa

The period of rapid colonization of the African continent by European powers during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This included significant territorial acquisitions and often involved exploitation and conflict.

Berlin Conference

A meeting held in 1884-1885 and called by Otto Von Bismarck where European powers negotiated the division of Africa among themselves to avoid conflict during the Scramble for Africa. It resulted in formalized territorial claims without African representation.

Fashoda Crisis

A standoff in 1898 between France and Britain in Sudan, stemming from competing imperial ambitions of railroad building in Africa; France backed out, knowing that they needed an alliance in Britain in order to fend off Germany

Entente Cordiale

A series of agreements signed in 1904 between France and Britain, resolving colonial disputes and marking the beginning of a diplomatic alliance against German expansionism.

Moroccan Crises

Two international crises in 1905 and 1911 involving disputes in which Germany backed Moroccan rebellions against the French; ultimately, the conflict was solved through diplomacy in which France retained control of Morocco

Joseph Conrad

A Polish-British writer known for his novels addressing themes of imperialism, including "Heart of Darkness," which critiques European colonialism in Africa.

King Leopold II

The King of Belgium who ruled the Congo Free State as a private venture, infamous for his brutal exploitation and significant atrocities against the Congolese people.

Heart of Darkness

A novella by Joseph Conrad that explores the darkness of colonialism and the effects it has on both the colonizer and the colonized, set against the backdrop of the Congo River.

Edmund Morel

A British journalist and outspoken critic of Belgian colonialism in the Congo, known for his efforts in raising awareness about the atrocities committed there, and founding the Congo Reform Association.

Congo Reform Association

An organization founded by Edmund Morel to advocate for the end of abuses in the Congo Free State and promote humanitarian reform; forced Leopold II to transfer imperial rights of the Congo to the state itself

JA Hobson

A British economist and social critic known for his critiques of imperialism and capitalism, particularly in his work "Imperialism: A Study." He argued that imperialism was driven by economic factors and capitalist greed.

Vladimir Lenin

was in partial agreement with JA Hobson over his critiques of imperialism; however, he separately argued that imperialism was the highest stage of capitalism, exploiting both colonies and the working class.

Zulus

a Bantu ethnic group from southern Africa, known for their military prowess and resistance against British colonization during the Anglo-Zulu War; however, the British were ultimately successful

Menelik II

king of Ethiopia who purchased industrial-grade weapons from France and Russia, allowing his forces to successfully resist Italian colonization at the Battle of Adwa in 1896.

British East India Company

a trading company established in 1600 that played a significant role in the colonization of India, exerting political and economic control over the region until 1858, when the British government took direct control.

Sepoy

an Indian soldier employed by the British East India Company, who played a key role in the company's military campaigns and later revolted due to a surge of nationalism during the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857.

Sepoy Mutiny

a major uprising against the British East India Company in 1857, sparked by discontent among Indian soldiers and widespread grievances against British rule.

political imperialism

a form of imperialism where one nation exerts control over another through political means, often establishing governance or influence over local leaders; established in Africa by England

economic imperialism

a form of imperialism characterized by the investment and control of one nation's economy over another, often leading to exploitation of resources and local labor for the benefit of the imperial power; established in China by England

opium

a narcotic drug widely used by British traders in China to exploit economic and social vulnerabilities; came from India

Opium Wars

Conflicts between China and Britain in the mid-19th century, primarily over trade imbalances and the British opium trade; British emerged victorious due to their more advanced industrialization, then opening more trade rights into China

Civilizing Mission

The belief that colonial powers had a duty to educate and convert the indigenous populations to Western culture and values, often used as justification for imperialism.

White Man’s Burden

a poem written by Rudyard Kipling in 1899, expressing the idea that Western nations had a moral obligation to civilize non-Western peoples, often used to justify imperialism.

rifled barrel

A firearm barrel that has spiral grooves cut into its interior, which imparts a spin to the bullet for increased accuracy and range; assisted in second-wave imperialism

minie ball

A conical bullet with a unique design that includes a hollow base, allowing for greater accuracy and range when fired from rifled barrels; assisted in second-wave imperialism

breech-loading rifle

A type of firearm that loads from the rear of the barrel, allowing for faster reloading and increased rate of fire; significant in second-wave imperialism and military conflicts.

machine gun

A rapid-firing firearm that automatically reloads and fires bullets in quick succession, drastically changing battle tactics and significantly aiding military efforts during second-wave imperialism.

Louis Pasteur

A French biologist and chemist known for his discoveries in germ theory and vaccination, which advanced medical practices and public health during the age of progress; assisted in second-wave imperialism in Africa, as imperialists could more easily colonize without dying of disease

quinine

A medication used to treat malaria, derived from the bark of the cinchona tree; it played a crucial role during second-wave imperialism by enabling European powers to colonize tropical regions more effectively.

Rani Lakshmi Bai

The queen of the princely state of Jhansi in India, known for her role in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against British rule, symbolizing resistance to imperialism and women's empowerment.

Rabindranath Tagore

An Indian poet, playwright, and philosopher who reshaped Bengali literature and music; he was the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913 and is celebrated for his contributions to Indian culture and nationalism.

Karl Benz

A German engineer and inventor, known for creating the first practical automobile powered by an internal combustion engine, which significantly contributed to the development of modern transportation.

Armand Peugeot

A French industrialist and founder of the Peugeot automobile company, he played a pivotal role in the early development of the automotive industry, promoting innovations in engine design and mass production.

Chemical Revolution

led to synthetic drugs; introduced chemical processes that transformed medicine and industry in the 18th and 19th centuries.

aspirin

created during the Chemical Revolution in the Modern era; replaced the treatment of pain with opioids, and reduced fevers and inflammation

Birth Control Revolution

was a social and medical movement in the 20th century that aimed to make contraceptive methods more accessible and acceptable, significantly impacting reproductive rights; fertility dropped significantly

public schools

were established as part of the broader social reforms during the Age of Progress, aiming to provide universal education and promote equality in education access.

Marie Curie

was a pioneering physicist and chemist who conducted groundbreaking research on radioactivity, becoming the first woman to win a Nobel Prize and the only person to win in two different scientific fields.

Mass Society

refers to a social structure that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by the widespread participation of individuals in economic, political, and cultural activities, often influenced by industrialization and urbanization; news print contributed to this

Oscar Wilde

imprisoned and largely condemned for his relationship with a young man; demonstrates the commonality of scandals perpetuated by the rise in mass society by newspapers, etc

Friedrich Alfred Krupp

was a German industrialist who founded the Krupp company, known for manufacturing steel and armaments, who committed suicide when the press revealed his relationships with young Italian men

temperence

the social movement aimed at reducing or prohibiting alcohol consumption, reflecting societal concerns about the effects of alcohol on individuals and families during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, especially by feminist movements with the commonality of domestic abuse

Marianne Hainisch

Austrian feminist and social reformer, known for advocating women's rights and the temperance movement in Austria; saw Feminism as “the call of one half of humanity for its civil rights”

Feminism

the advocacy of women's rights on the grounds of political, social, and economic equality to men, advocated for in the 19th century on the basis of improving the lives of half of the population, or for all

social democratic parties

during the rise of Feminism in the 19th century, usually took the marxist position that middle-class feminists were the enemy of working women, and women would be liberated through class struggle/the overthrow of the industrial owners

John Stuart Mill

a British philosopher and political economist known for his writings on liberty, classical liberalism, utilitarianism, and early advocacy for women's suffrage.

On the Subjection of Women

a book written by John Stuart Mill that drew on ideas from his wife, Harriet Taylor Mill, to argue for the legal and social equality of women and advocate for women's rights.

Emily Wilding Davidson

a British suffragette known for her militant activism, particularly her acts of civil disobedience, including throwing herself in front of the King's horse at the Derby to raise awareness for women's suffrage.

Revolution of 1905

A wave of mass political and social unrest in the Russian Empire that led to the establishment of the Duma and was a precursor to the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Rite of Spring

A groundbreaking modern ballet composed by Igor Stravinsky, first performed in 1913, that caused a scandal for its unconventional music and choreography, reflecting themes of pagan rituals and springtime fertility.

Claude Monet

A prominent French painter and a founder of Impressionism, known for his focus on light and color in landscapes and scenes of everyday life, such as "Water Lilies" and "Impression, Sunrise."

Art Nouveau

A decorative arts movement that emerged in the late 19th century, characterized by intricate designs, flowing lines, and organic forms inspired by natural elements; used in advertisements

Edvard Munch

Norwegian painter best known for his intense and emotional works, particularly "The Scream," which explores themes of anxiety and existential dread; demonstrated theosophy

theosophy

a mix of practices taken from Hindu, Islamic, and Buddhist traditions, emphasizing spiritual knowledge and understanding of the divine; influenced late 19th century art as it sought to portray the internal.

Antoine Becquerel

French physicist known for discovering radioactivity and awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work in 1903. His findings laid the groundwork for further research in atomic science.

Pragmatism

a philosophical approach focusing on practical consequences and real effects as critical components of meaning and truth; often comes into conflict with Positivism

Charles Darwin

An English naturalist best known for his theory of evolution by natural selection, which he detailed in his book "On the Origin of Species" published in 1859; went on an expedition for the British Royal Navy during which he was able to study flora and fauna and discovered flaws in the Creation story

natural selection

The process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. This concept was central to Darwin's theory of evolution.

Survival of the Fittest

A phrase that describes the concept of natural selection, where only those organisms best adapted to their environment survive and reproduce. It emphasizes the competitive aspect of evolutionary theory.

The Descent of Man

A book published by Charles Darwin in 1871, where he applied his theory of evolution by natural selection to human evolution, arguing that humans and apes share a common ancestor.

Social Darwinism

The socio-political theory that applies the concept of natural selection to human societies, suggesting that stronger individuals or groups naturally prevail over weaker ones in societal and economic contexts; founded by Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer

A philosopher and sociologist known for applying Darwinian ideas to social theory, coining social darwinism to justify social policies.

Houston Stewart Chamberlain

A German philosopher and writer who promoted racial theories and was influential in the development of nationalist attitudes in Germany, particularly regarding Aryan supremacy.

Aryans

A term used to describe a group of people originally referred to as Indo-European speaking populations, later used in the 19th century to promote ideologies of racial superiority and ethnic nationalism.

Nationalism

a feeling of strong identification with one’s own people and one’s own cultural heritage, and those bonds are strengthened by a shared history and a shared language

nation-state

a sovereign state whose citizens share a common identity, culture, and language, often defined by historical and social factors.

Romantic Idealism

a cause for the rise of nationalism; it emphasizes emotions, individualism, and the glorification of the nation and its culture.

Victor Hugo

a French poet and novelist best known for his works like "Les Misérables" and "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame." He was a prominent figure in the Romantic movement, emphasizing individualism and emotional expression.

liberal reforms

a cause of the rise of nationalism; changes aimed at increasing political freedom and individual rights, often involving constitutional governance and social justice; especially emphasized by Napoleon III

Napoleon III

the first President of France and later Emperor, known for modernizing the French economy and promoting national unity during the rise of nationalism; promoted free trade and universal male suffrage

Giuseppe Mazzini

an Italian politician, journalist, and activist, recognized as a key proponent of Italian unification. He founded the Young Italy movement, which aimed to create a unified and independent Italy through revolutionary means; was unsuccessful, but set the stage for later unification efforts

Young Italy

a political movement founded by Giuseppe Mazzini that sought to promote Italian unification and independence through revolutionary activism and the principles of democracy.

Pan-Slavic Movement

a social and political movement focused on the unity and cooperation of Slavic peoples across Europe, promoting cultural and national identity, and often advocating for the independence of Slavic nations from larger empires.

anti-semitism

the prejudice against or hostility towards Jewish people, often manifesting in discrimination, violence, and social exclusion throughout history; the rise of nationalism, even after many states had passed laws to protect Jewish rights, played a role in bringing this back

Dreyfus Affair

a political scandal in France involving the wrongful conviction of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer, for treason. The case exposed deep-rooted anti-Semitism in French society and sparked a national debate on justice and human rights.