NON EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

magnetic resonance imaging (mri)

- uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce a detailed image of the inside of the body.

- when the patient lies in the scanner, radio waves are sent and the protons line up inside the body

- when the radio waves are turned off, the protons realign. This sends out radio signals

- the signals create a detailed 3D image of the brain on the MRI monitor

positron emission tomography (PET)

- injecting a radioactive material into a patient which bonds to glucose

- the radioactive material emits particles called positrons.

- these combine with electrons in the body and produces radioactive waves.

- the scanner converts the waves into electrical signals.

- these signals produce 3D, coloured images of the level of activity occurring throughout the brain

case study

detailed investigations of an individual or small group of people. usually regarding an experience of interest to a field of research

case study strength

case study weakness

content analysis

- form of indirect observation

- observing people through the artefacts they produce

frequency analysis

the number of times a certain behaviours occur (quantitative data)

quantitative analysis

written description of the content of an artefact (qualitative data)

content analysis strength

- can be replicated

- sources can be retained and accessed by others

- analysis can be repeated

- consistency assessed, higher external reliability

content analysis weakness

- open to observer bias

- way researcher analyses content is based on their own opinion

- this can affect validity of findings

participant observation

researcher takes on the role of a participant while observing other participants' behaviour

participant strength: demand characteristics

- less chance compared to non-participant observation

- P's don't know they are being observed by researcher part of group

participant weakness: observer bias

- researcher's expectations affect their perception of events and they become subjective

participant weakness: unreliable findings

- difficult to take notes during the observation

- data relies on memory

non-participant observation

the researcher watches and records participants' behaviour without interfering in any way

non-participant observation: strength

observer doesn't take part in the action but instead watches from a distance so there is less chance of observer bias compared to participant observations

non-participant observation: weakness

unethical - participants do not always know they are being observed so they cannot fully consent

time sampling

psychologist observes and records behaviour at specific time intervals

time sampling: strength

less likely to be overwhelmed than in event sampling as the researcher only observes at specific points in time

time sampling: weakness

if the behaviour occurs outside of the time interval for recording, behaviours are likely to be missed

event sampling

psychologist records a specific behaviour each it occurs to create a total score

event sampling: strength

when done effectively, all behaviours should be recorded compared to time sampling

event sampling: weakness

can be more overwhelming for researchers to try and record every behaviour that occurs compared to time sampling

what is correlation?

a technique used to examine the relationship between two variables; measure the strength of the relationship

positive correlation

as one variable increases, the other also increases

negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

no correlation

no relationship between the variables

non-directional correlation

there will be a correlation

directional correctional

there will be a positive/negative correlation

null correlation

there will be no significant correlation

correlation strength: practicality

- can be used when impractical to manipulate variables experimentally

- any correlations found can form the basis for later experimental research

correlation strength: secondary data

- can use already existing data

- quicker to carry out research than primary research: generalise own data first

correlation weakness: causation

interview

participant gives a verbal response to questions which are then recorded and analysed by the interviewer/researcher

structured interview

interviewer has a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order

semi structured interview

begins with a general aim and some pre-determined questions but subsequent questions are developed based on the answers given by the participant

unstructured interview

only the first questions is pre-determined, all following questions are determined by the answers of the interviewee

structured interview strength

standardised format decreases the difference between interviewers and easy to replicate: increases reliability

structured interview weakness

not flexible: insightful questions cannot be asked, must stick to the fixed schedule. interesting information that is relevant may be overlooked

semi-structured interview strength

more informal and conversational than structured. interviewees feel more comfortable -> able to keep verbal responses on topic

semi-structured interview weakness

lack standardised procedure -> less reliable than structured interview questions may have been added/changed. lack of external reliability

peer review definition

the use of independent experts to assess the quality and validity of scientific research and reports

process of peer review: 1

- researcher submits article/ report to editor of journal they want their research published

process of peer review: 2

- editor of journal sends article to psychologists who have own research in similar area

- the psychologists are usually kept anonymous

process of peer review: 3

- psychologist/s reviewing the article write independent report on it with recommendations of improvement

- whether it should be accepted for publication or not

process of peer review: 4

- psychologists reviewing article consider adequacy of literature review

- adequacy of methods and statistical analysis

- these reports sent back to editor of journal

process of peer review: 5

article will then be either accepted for publication, returned for revisions or rejected

purpose of peer review: 1

- researchers get to read other people's studies + new ways of thinking and scientific developments

purpose of peer review: 2

studies submitted for publication are subjected to critical appraisal

questionnaires

non-experimental, self-report method that include a set of written questions where answers are analyses by the researcher

closed questions

set number of responses which the participant selects from (quantitative)

open questions

participant can give any answer they wish (qualitative)

likert scale

participant can give any answer they wish (quantitative)

semantic differential scale

participant selects a point on a rating scale that has two bi-polar adjectives at each end (quantitative)

questionnaires: strength

more likely to reveal personal information in a questionnaire than face to face in an interview as they are anonymous

- data is more likely to be valid

questionnaires: weakness

- different participants may interpret the same question in different ways

- affects the reliability as it can lead to inconsistent results

what does AIMRDRA stand for?

- abstract

- introduction

- method

- results

- discussion

- references

- appendix

abstract

- summarise research

- outline the aim

- final hypothesis after analysis

- max 200 words

introduction

- background of study

- context for aim and hypothesis

- general topic/ theory

- alternate and null hypothesis

method

- design, sample, materials/ equipment

- procedures: each step of experiment

results

- summarise data using statistics and graphs

- highlight key findings

discussion

- explain results

- link back to studies mentioned in the introduction

appendix

important documents

references

acknowledge other research and psychologists