PSC 140 Exam 1

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134 Terms

1
Plato
Believed children were born with knowledge and experiences trigged this knowledge
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Aristotle
Children acquire knowledge through experiences, not through innate knowledge. They acquire knowledge piece by piece
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Tabula Rasa
John Locke. blank slate, experience molds the infant, child, and adolescent into a unique individual
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Jean Jacques Rousseau
Justice and morality innate, unfolds as we age
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Industrial revolution
Children were a cheap form of labor, reformers started campaigns to think about the children
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Charles Darwin
Known for the theory of evolution, the theory of how species adapt over time not unlike how individuals adapt over time. Also did baby biographies
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Baby biographies
Detailed observations of individual children. Often subjective and conclusions were sometimes reached based on minimal evidence.
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G. Stanley Hall
Theories of child development, use of questionnaires for children’s thoughts, activities, and attitudes. Created scientific journal that published child development literature. Based on evolutionary theory and conducted studies to determine age trends in children’s beliefs about a range of topics
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Alfred Binet
Mental tests
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Sigmund Freud
Discussed the role of early experience in later life pathology
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John B. Watson
Coined behaviorism, and the importance of reward and punishment for child rearing practices
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Behaviorism
Conditioning of social and emotional behavior, Baby Albert experiments
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Theory
Organized set of ideas that is designed to explain and make predictions. Lead to hypotheses that can be tested
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Biological perspective
Development is rooted in biology.
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Maturational theory
Arnold Gesell, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme or plan within the body
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Ethological theory
Konrad Lorenz. Views development from an evolutionary perspective. Behavior’s are adaptive. There are critical periods, which means that all animals are biologically programmed so that some kinds of learning appear only at certain ages. EX: Ducks imprint on the first things they saw moving but it has to occur in the first day
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Critical period
time in development when a specific type of learning can take place; before or after the critical period, the same learning is difficult or even impossible
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Psychodynamic theory
Freud. Early experiences shaped our later lives. How we resolve conflicts faced at different stages of development effects our older selves. Includes Id, ego, and superego
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Id
Instinctual drives that operate on the basis of the pleasure principle
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Ego
Rational component of the personality, which tries to satisfy the needs through appropriate, socially acceptable behaviors
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Super ego
Repository of the child’s internalization of parental or societal values, morals, and roles. “moral agent”
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Psychosocial theory
Erik Erikson. Development consists of a sequence of stages, each defined by a unique crisis or challenge
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Basic trust vs. mistrust
Birth to 1 year

Challenge: Develop sense the world is safe
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Autonomy vs shame and doubt
1 to 3 years

Challenge: Realize independent person
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Initiative vs. guilt
3 to 6 years

Challenge: Try new things and handle failure
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Industry vs. inferiority
6 years to adolescence

Challenge: Learn basic skills & work together
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Identity vs. identity confusion
Adolescence

Challenge: Develop lasting integrated self
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Intimacy vs. isolation
Young Adulthood

Challenge: Commit to loving relationship
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Generativity vs. stagnation
Middle Adulthood

Challenge: Contribute to younger people
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Integrity vs. despair
Late Life

Challenge: View one’s life as satisfactory
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Operant conditioning
BF Skinner. Consequences of behavior determine if behavior is repeated. Reinforcement and punishment. However, not all behavior’s are the result of rewards and punishments. There is also imitation or observational learning
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Reinforcement
Consequences that increase future likelihood of behavior
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Punishment
Consequence that decreases future likelihood of behavior
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Social Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura. More than imitation, requires interaction of thought with social environment. We have self efficacy. Imitation requires thinking about, who the person is, is the behaviors rewarded? and does the child have the talent to do it too?
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Cognitive developmental perspective
Jean Piaget. How children think and try to make sense of their world, how their thinking changes as they grow. Four stages
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Sensorimotor
Birth to 2 years. Knowledge based on senses; by end can use mental representations
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Preoperational
2 to 6 years. Learn how to use symbols; only relates to their own perspective
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Concrete Operational
7 to 11 years. Understanding and using logical operations to experiences if the experiences are “here and now”
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Formal Operational
Adolescence +. Thinks abstractly, can speculate on hypotheticals
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Contextual perspective
Lev Vygotsky. Relates to culture. Society aims to enable children to develop cultural values and skills, so have to consider cultural backdrop
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Systemic observation
Watching children and recording what they do or say
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Naturalistic observation
Real life situations, with variables decided to be recorded ahead of time

Pro: Can capture great information

Cons: some events are rare
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Structured observation
Created situation to elicit behavior of interest Ex: Having mother and child come to lab and play, then record child reaction to clean up.Pros: Allows research into difficult to capture behaviors

Pros: Allows research into difficult to capture behaviors

Cons: Participants might behave differently because they are being observed
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Sampling behavior with tasks
Example: Study memory with digit span task

\
Pros: Easy!

Cons: Might not capture behavior of interest correctly
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Self Reports
Asking children about their behaviors
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Response bias
Some responses are more socially acceptable than others
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Reliable
provides consistent results
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Valid
It really measures what is says it does
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Correlational study
Relationship between variables as they exist naturally without intervention, usually looking at 2 variables. This is a numerical estimate of how closely two variables are related to each other, and in which direction. But, Identifying a relationship and attributing its cause to one variable or the other can lead to incorrect assumptions
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Experimental studies
Lab experiment. Not natural environment, calls results into questions
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Field Experiment
Researchers deliberately create a change in a real-world setting and then measure the outcome of their manipulation. Can be difficult to set up
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Quasi-experiment
Researchers measure the results of events that occur naturally in the real world that would be impossible or unethical to conduct an experiment on
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Cross-Sectional Design
Researchers compare groups of individuals of different age levels at the same point in time

Disadvantages include Yields no information about the causes of the age-related differences Yields no information about stability or change of individuals across age Differences could be due to age-related changes, or historical change/cohort effects
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Longitudinal Studies
Investigators follow the same people over a period of time, with repeated observations

Can examine change in individuals across time rather than differences in age groups Can examine stability over time Can examine possible causes of change over time

Issues:

Not as efficient as cross-sectional approach Loss of participants over the course of the study (mortality) Selective attrition Lack of flexibility on terms of updating methods of measurement

Practice effects

Cohort effects – change may be due to a specific generation of people

More time consuming and expensive
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Microgenetic study
Attempts to track change when it actually occurs. Think of it as a very brief longitudinal design
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Meta-analysis
Combines the results of many studies to draw conclusions about associations The accuracy of a these is limited by the samples in the individual studies and the quality of the designs
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Ethical Responsibilities
 Minimize risk to research participants  Describe the research to potential participants  Informed consent  Avoid deception  Keep results anonymous and confidential
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Gene
segments of DNA that provide a specific set of instructions
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Genotype
Complete set of genes makes up a person’s heredity
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Phenotype
Genetic instructions, in conjunction with environmental influences produce this. An individual’s physical, behavioral, and psychological features
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Alleles
Different forms of same gene
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Homozygous
Gene pair is the same
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Heterozygous
Gene pair is different
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Genetic counseling
Detailed family history that can be used to decide potential risks for individual
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Down syndrome
An extra 21st chromosome. First several months is normative development, but soon fall behind in developmental milestones. Extra chromosome usually comes from the mother’s egg. Chances increase with increased maternal age
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Polygenic inheritance
Most behavioral traits are reflective of the interaction of multiple genes acting in concert
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Behavioral genetics
Determining the impact of heredity on behavioral and psychological traits. Studied through twin and adoption studies. Comparing scores between mono and dizygotic twins can help tease apart the effects of genes. However, identical twins might be treated more similarly than fraternal twins. Comparing behaviors a child to their birth parents and adopted parents also helps us to understand this. Molecular genetics: Collecting DNA to see if there is a relationship between genotype and outcome of interest
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Epigenesis
Interaction of genes and multiple levels of the environment
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Methlyation
The “turning off” of some genes due to environmental factors
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Heritability coefficient
Extent to which differences between people reflect heredity. It applies to variation (differences between people). As a singular person, you do not have variation
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Niche-picking
Seeking environments that fit one’s heredity
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Nonshared environmental influences
Parents might treat children differently, Peers might push siblings towards different behaviors
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Period of the Zygote
Weeks 1 to 2. Ends when the zygote (fertilized egg) implants itself on the all of the uterus
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Implantation
Blastocyst burrows into uterine wall and established connection with mother’s blood vessels
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Germ disc
Small cluster of cells near center of blastocyst. Eventually forms into the baby
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Placenta
Layer of cells closest to uterus, which exchanges nutrients and waste with the mother
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Period of the embryo
weeks 3-8. Called embryo when completely embedded in the uterine wall
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Ectoderm
Outer layer, forming hair, skin, and the nervous system
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Mesoderm
middle layer, forming muscles, bones, and circulatory system
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Endoderm
inner layer, forming digestive system and lung
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Villi
Finger like projections that blood flows through near mothers blood vessels. Allows exchange of oxygen, vitamins, and waste projects to be exchanged
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Period of the fetus
weeks 9-38. At beginning, weighs less than an ounce. 4 months, fetus is 4 – 8 ounces (can feel it move!). Tube forms, one end becomes the brain, the rest the spinal cord. Distinct brain structures begin to grow, begins to regulate body functions. In third month, hormone in testes secreted that causes some cells to become penis and scrotum. If absent, vagina and labia forms. Heart rate variability at about 6 months. Moves about once a minute. Can hear mom’s heartbeat and voice. Can taste flavors in amniotic fluid. Enough light passes through abdominal wall for fetus to see. Develop memory.
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Vernix
Greasy substance that covers and protects skin
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General risk factors
Nutrition, stress, mother’s age, father’s age
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Teratogens
An agent that causes abnormal prenatal development. Three classes: diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards. Effects can differ dependent on what stage of development exposed. Affects a specific aspect(s) of prenatal development. Also depends on the dose. Damage not always obvious at birth.
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Ultrasound
Sound waves used to generate picture of fetus. Can be used as early as 4 to 5 weeks after conception. Can help determine twins, and if fetus developing normally, as well as gestational age
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Amniocentesis
A sample of fetal cells obtained from amniotic fluid. If done, completed around 16 weeks after conception
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Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
Sample of tissue from a part of the placenta. An be done around 9-12 weeks
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Fetal medicine
Treating fetal problems before birth. Administering drugs or fetal surgery
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Stage 1 of birth
Contractions start weaker, and are spaced irregularly. Eventually become more and more regular. 12-24 Hours. Cervix enlarges to 10 cm
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Stage 2 of birth
Cervix fully enlarged (the “pushing” part of pregnancy)  Crowning, where babies head appears  Breech presentation is when babies feet or bottom arrives first

1 hour. Baby moves down the birth canal
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Stage 3 of birth
Placenta is expelled from the uterus. 10-15 minutes. Placenta is expelled
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Hypoxia
 Can occur after prolapsed umbilical cord. **** Can lead to developmental disabilities or even death  Monitoring heart rate can help guard against hypoxia
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Premature infants
Born 35 weeks after conception or earlier. Might lag behind developmental milestones for first couple of years, but catch up
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Small for date infants
Substantially smaller than would be expected. Babies under 3.3 pounds often do not survive
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Autonomic
control of breathing, temperature
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Motor
Control of body movements and activity level
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State
Maintaining states, like alert or asleep
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Social
Ability to interact with others
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Babinski
Toes fan out when sole stroked
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