AP Psychology ALL Unit 0-5 vocab

Critical thinking

The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment, often involving skepticism and open-mindedness.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one's own abilities or knowledge, often leading to incorrect conclusions or decisions.

Random sequence

A random arrangement of events or outcomes that appears to lack pattern or predictability, often leading to misconceptions about occurrences.

Perceiving order in random events

The tendency to see patterns or correlations in random data, leading to false beliefs about predictability and control.

scientific method

a self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis.

peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluates a research article’s theory, originaility, and accuracy.

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observation and predicts behaviors or events.

hypothesis

a testable prediction often implied by a theory

flasifiable

the possibility that an ideas, hypothesis or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment.

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (Also known as operationalization.)

replication

repeating the essence of a research a study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

case study

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

naturalistic observation

non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

survey

a non-experimental technique for obtaining the selfreported attitudes or behaviors ofa particular group, usually by questioning a representative random sample of the group.

social desirability bias

bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes (people answering in a way they think will please the researcher)

self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately. (when people don't accurately report or remember their behaviors)

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

population

all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.)

descriptive statistic

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include measures of central tendency and measures of variation

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

median

the middle score in a distribution when the scores are arranged in ascending order.

percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score.

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. (Also called a normal distribution.)

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize-to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied.

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables.The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other.

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between tw variables (from -1.00 to +1.00).

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

causation

the relationship where one event causes another to occur.

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-thanactual relationship.

regression towards the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control exper other relevant factors.

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment-that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

single-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caaused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results

experimenter bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center.

dendrite

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body.

axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

ions

electrically charged atoms

resting potential

The fluid outside an axon’s membrane has mostly positively charged ions; a resting axon’s fluid interior has a mostly negative charge. A positive-outside/negative-inside state

depolarization

When a neuron fires, the first section of the axon opens its gates, rather like a storm sewer cover flipping open, and positively charged ions (attracted to the negative interior) flood in through the now-open channels. The loss of the inside/outside charge difference.

excitatory

a type of neurotransmitter that stimulates the firing of a neuron, increasing the likelihood of a neural impulse.

inhibitory

a type of neurotransmitter that inhibits the firing of a neuron, decreasing the likelihood of a neural impulse.

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

synaptic gap/cleft

the small space between neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, ___ travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory. It plays a role in transmitting signals between nerve cells and is critical for motor control.With Alzheimer’s disease, ____-producing neurons deteriorate.

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, motivation,reward and inflluences movement, learnign attention, and emotion. It plays a key role in regulating mood and is linked to motor control and the regulation of mood. Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson’s disease.

Serotonin

a neurotransmitter that contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness. It helps regulate mood, sleep, appetite, digestion, and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression. Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression.

Norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter involved in arousal, alertness, and the stress response. It affects attention, responses to stimulus, and regulates mood, with low levels linked to depression or depressed mood.

GABA

a neurotransmitter that is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, helping to calm nervous activity. It plays a role in reducing anxiety and stress, and an undersupply is linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Glutamate

a neurotransmitter that serves as the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, playing a key role in synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. An oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures.

Endorphins

a neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure. They are released during exercise, stress, and pain relief. Oversupply with opioid drugs can suppress the body’s natural ___n supply.

natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Substance P

a neurotransmitter that Involved in pain perception and immune response. Oversupply can lead to chronic pain.

opioids

a class of drugs that include both prescription medications and illicit substances, which are known to mimic the effects of endorphins and are used for pain relief but can lead to addiction and overdose.

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.

Antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.

endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.It regulates various bodily functions such as growth, metabolism, and mood through hormone signaling.

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. They help regulate processes such as growth, metabolism, and mood.

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that produce hormones such as adrenaline and corticosteroids, which help regulate metabolism, immune response, and stress.

epinephrine

a hormone produced by the adrenal glands that increases heart rate and energy levels during stress or excitement, often referred to as adrenaline.

fight or flight response

a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived threat, preparing the body to either confront or flee from the danger. It involves the release of hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol.

Pituitary gland

the master gland of the endocrine system, located at the base of the brain, that regulates other glands and controls functions such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction. where it is controlled by an adjacent brain area, the hypothalamus

oxytocin

a hormone released by the pituitary gland that plays a role in social bonding, reproduction, and childbirth. enables orgasm and, in women, labor contractions and milk flow while nursing.

phrenology

a theory that suggests mental processes and personality traits can be determined by the shape of the skull, linking brain areas to specific functions.

localization of function

the concept that specific areas of the brain are responsible for particular functions, such as movement, sensation, and cognition.

biological psychologist

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

neuroplasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.

lesion

issue destruction. Brain ____ may occur naturally (from disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells).

EEG

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. a technique used to detect brain waves related to mental states like sleep or attention.measure electrical activity in neurons.

MEG

a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity. It provides high temporal resolution, allowing researchers to understand brain function in real-time. A head coil records magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical currents.

CT

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure. may locate brain damage.

PET

technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.