positioning ch2

sagittal plane

divides the body or body part into right and left segments. passes through the body vertically from front to back. fig 2.1 a

midsagittal passes through the midline divides into equal right and left halves.

coronal plane

divides the body or body part into anterior and posterior segments . passes through the body vertically from one side to the other.

midcoronal plane passes through the midline dividing anterior and posterior segments into equal halves.

horizontal plane

passes crosswise through the body or body part at right angles to the longitudinal axis. positioned at a right angle to sagittal and coronal planes. divides body into superior and inferior portions. axial, transverse, or cross sectional plane also

oblique plane

can pass through a body part at any angle among the three previous planes. (fig 2.1)

interiliac plane

special plane. transects the pelvis at the top of the iliac crests at level of fourth lumbar spinous process. used in positioning lumbar spine, sacrum, and coccyx. (fig 2.4 a)

occlusal plane

special plane. formed by the biting surfaces of the upper and lower teeth with the jaws closed. used in positioning the odontoid process and some head projections. fig 2.4 b

body cavities

two great cavities of the torso are the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

thoracic cavity

subdivided into pericardial segment and two pleural portions fig. 2.5

principal structures

pleural membranes

lungs

trachea

esophagus

pericardium

heart and great vessels

abdominal cavity

this cavity has no intervening partition the lower portion is called the pelvic cavity. fig 2.5

principle structures

peritoneum

liver

gallbladder

pancreas

spleen

stomach

intestines

kidneys

ureters

major blood vessels

pelvic portion- rectum, urinary bladder, parts of reproductive system

abdomen

portion of trunk bordered superiorly by diaphragm, and inferiorly by pelvic aperture (inlet) can be divided in four quadrants or nine regions.

RUQ

RLQ

LLQ

LUQ- spleen is here fig 2.6

regions of abdomen

not as used as quadrants but some divide the abdomen into nine regions.

superior- right hypochondrium, epigastrium, left hypochondrium

middle- right lateral, umbilical, left lateral

inferior- right inguinal, hypogastrium, left inguinal

osteology

the detailed study of the body of knowledge relating to bones of the body .

206 primary bones in adult human skeleton

cervical area landmarks

C1- mastoid tip

C2, C3- ganion (angle of mandible)

c3,c4- hyoid bone

c5-thyroid cartilage

c7, T1- vertebrae prominens

thoracic area landmarks

T1- approx 2 in above level of jugular notch

T2, T3- level of jugular notch

T4, T5- level of sternal angle

T7- level of inferior angles of scapulae

T9,T10- level of xiphoid process

lumbar area landmarks

L2, L3- inferior costal margin

L4,L5- level of superior most aspect of iliac crests

sacrum and pelvic area landmarks

S1, S2- level of anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS)

Coccyx- level of pubic symphysis and greater trochanters

body habitus

common variations in the shape of the human body, affects locations of the heart lungs diaphragm stomach colon and gallbladder. 4 types of ____ ____

sthenic (average)

hyposthenic (AVERAGE)

asthenic (extreme)

hypersthenic (extreme)

sthenic

one of four body habitus. 50% frequency in population. avg .more than 85% of population has this or hyposthenic. (box 2.1)

heart- moderatly transverse

lungs- moderate length

diaphragm- moderately high

stomach- high upper left

colon- spread evenly slight dip in transverse colon

gallbladder- centered on right side upper abdomen

hyposthenic

one of four body habitus 35% frequency more than 85% of population has this or sthenic.

asthenic

one of four body habitus only 10% of population has this habitus. heart is nearly vertical at midline lungs are apices above clavicles diaphragm is low stomach is low and medial. usually frail build with a short abdomen and small pelvis

hypersthenic

one of four body habitus only 5% of population has this habitus. heart axis nearly transverse lungs short apices at or near clavicles stomach is high transverse and in the middle. diaphragm is high

build is usually massive abdomen is long pelvis is narrow

skeleton functions

adult human skeleton has 206 primary bones. bones provide the following

attachment for muscles

mechanical basis for movement

protection of internal organs

a frame to support the body

storage for calcium phosphorous and other salts

production of red and white blood cells

axial skeleton

supports and protects the head a trunk with 80 bones

skull

cranial 8

facial 14

auditory 6 (ossicles are small bones in ear not official bones)

neck

hyoid- 1

thorax

sternum 1

ribs 24

vertebral column

cervical 7

thoracic 12

lumbar 5

sacrum 1

coccyx 1

appendicular skeleton

allows body to move in various positions and from place to place. 126 bones

shoulder girdle

clavicles 2

scapulae 2

upper limbs

humeri 2

ulnae 2

radii 2

carpals 16

metacarpals 10

phalanges 28

lower limbs

femora 2

tibias 2

fibulae 2

patellae 2

tarsals 14

metatarsals 10

phalanges 28

pelvic girdle

hip bones 2

compact bone

general bone feature. strong dense outer layer. protects the bone and gives it strength for supporting the body.

spongy bone

general bone feature. inner less dense layer. contains spiculated network called trabeculae. trabeculae filled with red and yellow marrow. red marrow produces red and white blood cells, yellow stores adipose fat cells.

medullary cavity

long bones have a central cavity contains trabeculae filled with yellow marrow. in long bones red marrow is concentrated at ends of bone not in this cavity.

periosteum

tough fibrous connective tissue covers all bony surfaces except articular surfaces which are covered by articular cartilage.

blood vessels and nerves exit bone through this

endosteum

the tissue lining the medullary cavities of bones. lines marrow cavity.

tubercles and tuberosities

knob like projections on bones covered by periosteum, muscles, tendons, and ligaments attach to the periosteum at these projections.

foramina

bones are live organs that need a blood supply and they also contain nerves. vessels and nerves enter and exit the bones through opening called the ______

nutrient foramen

near the center of all long bones is this opening in the periosteum. the nutrient artery of the bone passes into this opening and supplies the cancellous bone and marrow. fig 2.14

ossification

term that applies to the development and formation of bones. begins in second month of embryonic life.

two process- intermembranous and endochondral

intramembranous ossification

bones that develop from fibrous membranes in the embryo produce flat bones (bones of skull, clavicles, mandible, and sternum.)

before birth these bones are not joined as flat bones they grow after birth then join and form sutures. other bones in this category merge and create joints of the skeleton.

endochondral ossification

bones created by this develop from hyaline cartilage in the embryo and produce short, irregular, and long bones. occurs from two distinct centers of development

 Primary

 Secondary centers of ossification.

primary ossification

begins before birth and forms long central shaft in long bones. and forms entire bulk of short and irregular bones.

during development only the long shaft of bone is called diaphysis.

secondary ossification

occurs after birth. when separate bones begin to develop at both ends of long bones. each end is called epiphysis.

at first diaphysis and epiphysis are separate, as growth occurs plate of cartilage called epiphyseal plate develops between the two areas, common site of fracture in pediatric patients

bone classification

bones are classified by shape

long

short

flat

irregular

sesamoid

long bones

only found in the limbs. consist primarily of long cylindic shaft called the body, and two large rounded heads that have smooth articular surface covered by articular cartilage.

ends articulate with other long bones. primary function of these bones is to provide support.

(femur, humerus, phalanges)

short bones

consist of cancellous bone containing red marrow. have a thin outer layer of compact bone. the carpal bones of the wrist and tarsals of ankles are only type of these bones.

varied in shape and allow minimum flexibility of motion in a short distance.

flat bones

consist of two tables of compact bone. the narrow spaces between inner and outer tables contain cancellous bone and red marrow or diploe.

cranium, sternum, and scapula are examples.

surfaces provide protection, and their broad surfaces allow muscle attachment.

irregular bones

peculiar shapes and variety of forms don’t place them in any other category. vertebrae and bones of pelvis and face fall into this category. have compact bone on exterior and cancellous bone with red marrow on interior.

shape serves as attachment for muscles, tendons, and ligaments, or they attach to other bones to create joints.

sesamoid bones

small and oval. develop inside and beside tendons.

Protect the tendon from excessive wear

Largest is patella

Located:

-Beneath the first metatarsophalangeal articulation of the foot

•-On the palmar aspect of the thumb at the metacarpophalangeal joint of the hand

- Can be fractured

arthrology

the study of joints or the articulations between bones. joints make it possible for bones to support the body, protect internal organs, and create movement.

two classifications

structural

functional

functional classification

when joints are classified as this they are broken down into three subdivisions

synarthroses- immovable

amphiarthroses- slightly movable

diarthroses- freely movable

(Remember I’m functionally sad)

S > A > D go from immovable to movable

structural classification

classification of joint. based on types of tissue that unite or bind the articulating bones. from there they are put into three groups bases on connective tissue

fibrous

cartilaginous

synovial

fibrous joints

do not have a joint cavity. united by various fibrous and connective tissues or ligaments.

these are the strongest joints in the body.

three types

syndesmosis- immovable or slightly movable united by sheets of fibrous tissue. (inferior tibiofibular joint)

suture- immovable joint occurring only in skull. interlocking bones are held together with connective tissue (skull sutures)

gomphosis- immovable. only in root of teeth of alveolar socket. held by fibrous periodontal ligaments.

cartilaginous joints

similar to fibrous joints also have no joint cavity and are virtually immovable. hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage unites these joints

symphysis- slightly movable joint. bones in this joint are separated by pad of fibrocartilage. ends of bone contain hyaline cartilage. designed for strength and shock absorption. joint between pubic bones and joints between vertebral body are examples.

synchondrosis- immovable. contains rigid cartilage unites two bones. ex is epiphyseal plate in growing long bone. when growth stops cartilage ossifies making this temporary joint.

synovial joint

joint permits wide range of motion freely movable. most complex joints in body. they’re enclosed by articular capsule outer layer of this capsule is called fibrous capsule.

have accessory soft tissues

meniscus- act as shock absorbers

bursae- reduce friction between skin and bones tendons and bones and muscles and bones.

six types all freely movable- gliding, hinge, pivot, ellipsoid, saddle, ball and socket (table 2.4 pg 64)

gliding joint

synovial joint. simplest. permits slight movement glide slightly in only one axis uniaxial movement.

intercarpal and intertarsal joints ex.

hinge joint

synovial joint. permits flexion and extension. uniaxial movement. moves similar to a door. elbow knee and ankle examples

pivot joint

synovial joint. allows rotation around a single axis. uniaxial movement. example anlantoaxial joint (C1-C2) joint

ellipsoid joint

synovial joint. biaxial movement. allows flexion extension abduction adduction and circumduction. allows movement in two directions at right angles of each other.

radiocarpal (wrist joint)

saddle joint

synovial joint. sellar. biaxial movement. similar to movement of ellipsoid, difference is shape of articular surfaces which is saddle shaped while other is shaped like a rider.

carpometacarpal joint between trapezium and first metacarpal

ball and socket joint

spheroid. synovial joint. permits widest range of motion multiaxial movement. flexion extension, abduction adduction circumduction and rotation.

examples hip and shoulder.

processes and projections

processes or projections extend beyond or project out from the main body of a bone.

condyle

rounded process at an articular extremity

coracoid or coronoid

beak like or crown like process

crest

ridgelike process

epicondyle

projection above a condyle

facet

small smooth surfaced articular process

hamulus

hook shaped process

head

expanded end of a long bone (

horn

hornlike process

line

linear elevation not as prominent as a crest

malleolus

club shaped process

protuberance

Projecting prominence

spine

sharp process

styloid

Long, pointed process

trochanter

Either of the two large, rounded, and elevated processes of the proximal femur

tubercle

small round and elevated process

tuberosity

large rounded and elevated process.

depressions

hollow or depressed areas of bone

fissure

cleft or deep groove

foramen

hole in a bone for transmission of vessels and nerves

fossa

pit, fovea or hollow space

groove

shallow linear channel

meatus

tubelike passageway

notch

indentation in the border of a bone

sinus

recess groove cavity or hollow space

sulcus

furrow or trench

fracture

a break in the bone classified according to nature of break

closed fracture

fracture that does not break through the skin

open fracture

serious fracture in which broken bone or bones project through the skin

nondisplaced

fracture in which bone retains its normal alignment

displaced fracture

serious fracture in which bones are not in anatomic alignment

common fracture classifications

-Compression

 Compound (open)- broken bone pierces skin

 Comminuted- bone breaks into three or more fragments

 Greenstick- partial common in children bone bends and cracks one side

 Impacted- one bone fragment is driven into other

 Transverse- fracture runs horizontally across bones long axis

 Spiral or oblique- bone twisted or rotated leading to oblique fracture line

 Simple- does not break through skin

Compression- vertebra in spine is crushed or compressed

many fall into more than one category.

anterior (ventral)

forward or front part of the body or of a part

posterior (dorsal)

back part of body or part

caudad

parts away from the head of the body

cephalad

parts towards the head of the body

superior

nearer the head or situated above

inferior

nearer the feet or situated below

central

mid area or main part of an organ

peripheral

at or near the surface, edge or outside of another body part

medial

toward the median plane of the body or toward the middle of a body part

lateral

away from the medial plane of away from the middle of a part

superficial

near the skin or surface

deep

far from surface

distal

farthest from point of attachment or origin