AP Psychology final

survey

survey

unreliable because someone might lie, but they are good because they are cheap and you can reach a large, diverse group of people in a short amount of time

experiment

used when you want to find the cause of something (causal [cause-al])

correlational study

-predict the possibility of events, they do not prove them

-they help us understand complex relations between studies

-correlation is not causation

cross sectional studies

used to observe a group of people at the same point in time

longitidinal studies

used to measure the same group of people over a long period of time

standard deviation

a measure of how dispersed the data is in relation to the mean

basically the average for all the number/data

APA ethical guidelines

-purpose of research

-expected duration of the procedures

-participant’s right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research one it has started

-confidentiality

-incentives for participation

generalizability

the measure of how useful the results of a study are for a broader group of people or situations. basically you can use information from a test to apply it to a greater more diverse population

random assignment

the people that are from a random sample are put into random groups so that there are no biases

random sample

way of selecting members of a population for your study’s sample so that there are no biases

positive correlation

two variables systematically increase in the same direction (more sleep = better test scores)

negative correlation

two variables systematically vary in opposite directions (the more time you spend on your phone = the worse you do on tests)

operationally define (something)

a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables

-ex: intelligence may be defined as what an intelligence test measures

reliability

refers to the consistency of a measure (results can be reproduced)

validity

refers to the accuracy of a measure (does the test represent what it is supposed to measure)

factor analysis

a technique used to reduce a large number of factors into a small number of factors

-also refered to as data reduction

amygdala

processes fear and emotions (also memory)

hippocampus

structure that contributes to the formation of memory

-damage to the hippocampus has been associated with alzheimer’s

pons

sleep, regulate breathing patterns

medulla oblongata

automatic functions such as breathing and heartbeat

hypothalamus

responsible for the 4 F’s (feeding, fleeting, fighting, mating)

corpus callosum

allows the two hemispheres to communicate/coordinate with each other

-would be severed if a patient had severe seizures (would be a “last resort” kind of situation)

antagonist

-fits a receptor (dendrite) but poorly and blocks the neurotransmitter

-acts as an inhibitor for other neurotransmitters

agonist

-fits a receptor cell and acts like a neurotransmitter

-mimic other neurotransmitters and act as an excitatory stimulant

occipital lobe

back of the brain

-eyesight including motion, color, and recognition

parietal lobe

top of the brain

-sensory perception

temporal lobes

both sides of the brain

-hearing and memory

frontal lobes

front of the brain

-critical thinking, personality, problem solving

motor cortex

top of the head

-controls motor movement and voluntary muscle movement

wernike’s area

understanding speech

broca’s area

speech production

acetylcholine (ACh)

motor movement, learning, memory

-deficiency in ACh production = alzheimer’s disease

dopamine

motor movements, alertness, attention

-deficiency = parkinson’s disease

-excess = schizophrenia (often treated with antipsychotic drugs that block dopamine receptors)

endorphines

pain control, stress reduction, feelings of pleasure

-deficiency = addiction

GABA

brain’s major inhibitory neurotransmitter

-deficiency = insomnia, seizures

glutamate

excitatory neurotransmitter, learning, long term memory

-excess = overstimulation of the brain (seizures)

norepinephrine

fight or flight, alertness, arousal, elevates heart rate

-deficiency = depression

serotonin

mood regulation, hunger, sleep

-defect = depression (often treated with serotonin reuptake inhibitors, also known as SSRIs)

tolerance

the body adapts to a drug so it needs more to feel some sort of stimulus

withdrawal

physical and mental symptoms that a person has when they suddenly stop or cut back the use of an addictive substance

figure ground principle

one of Gestalt’s principles

-organization that separates objects from the background

grouping

one of Gestalt’s principles

-the tendency to group stimuli into understandable groups

proximity

one of Gestalt’s principles

-we tend to group nearby objects together

continuity

one of Gestalt’s principles

-we perceive smooth continuing patterns over disconnected ones

closure

one of Gestalt’s principles

-we tend to fill in gaps to complete full objects

senses

auditory (hearing), kinestetic (sense of position and movement of individual body parts), vestibular (head movement and rotation), olfactory (smell), touch

sensory adaptation

the way our senses adapt to different stimuli over time

signal detection theory

a model for predicting how and when a person will detect a stimuli, partly based on context

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

-ex: listen to headphones and indicate the earliest you hear a tone

difference threshold

minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. we experience the difference threshold as just a noticable difference

-ex: listen to headphones and indicate when you hear a change in volume

color vision theory

humans can only perceive red, blue, and green (cones)

-known as the trichromatic theory

stimulus generalization

thinking things are the same

-ex: you are scared of dogs so you are also scared of cats

extinction

getting rid of trained response or correlation

discrimination

realizing that not every stimuli is the same

-ex: you can differentiate between dogs and cats

spontaneous recovery

the reemergence of conditioned responding to an extinguished conditional stimuli. basically the response comes back after you already extinguished it

positive reinforcement

adding something good/pleasant after a behavior

negative reinforcement

removing something bad or annoying after a behavior (like how a car beeps to get you to buckle up)

insight learning

immediate and clear understanding that takes place without overt trial and error testing (like the monkeys with the water and the walnuts)

-kohler: learning

cognitive map

a mental represenation of one’s environment. you can have a map of your surroundings in your head (like how we drew CCA)

-created by Edward Tolman

latent learning

learning that takes place before the subject realizes it. not intentional learning, occurs almost accidentally

classical conditioning

organism comes to associate two stimuli

operant conditioning

a choice where behavior is reinforced through reward

circadian rhythm

the master clock in the body. like how our body knows when yo wake up and go to sleep. it’s like an interal clock basically

belief perserverance

the inability for people to change their own belief even upon receiving new information or facts that contradict or refute that belief

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood if events based on their availability in memory

-ex: an airplane crash makes you think that your own airplane will crash

representative heuristic

makes assumptions based on superficial similarities or patterns in events, whether recent or dated

Hermann Ebbinghaus

worked/studied memory. discovered the forgetting curve and spacing effect

declarative memory

can be stored in the memory in terms of facts

procedural memory

related to the experiences that make a person remember a certain skill

-ex: learning how to swim or riding a bike

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory as an event

the McGurk effect

an auditory illusion where an audio is played with mismatching lips which creates a false sound

-ex: playing the sound “ba” while a pair of lips goes “ga” leads to the perception that the person is hearing the sound “da”

functional fixedness

the inability to see a problem from a new/different perspective. impediment for problem solving

homeostasis

the tendency for your body to keep everything in balance (alive)

Mary Ainsworth

studied secure attachment and strange situations (strangers)

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

• birth - 2 years: sensorimotor: object permanence, stranger anxiety

• 3 - 6 years: preoperational: egocentrism, language developement, pretend play

• 7-11 years: concrete: conservation, mathematical, transformations

• 12 - adulthood: formal: abstract logic, potential for moral reasoning

Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

the idea that we develop morally

• preconventional - self interest, avoid punishment, gain concrete rewards

• conventional - morality of law and social rules

• postconventional - abstract principles (you see beyond yourself). not everyone reaches this stage

regression

one of freud’s defense mechanisms

-an individual with anxiety retreats to a more infantile stage

projection

one of freud’s defense mechanisms

-you attribute your problems or unacceptable urges onto someone else

denial

one of freud’s defense mechanisms

-when an individual refuses to believe facts or experiences to protect themselves from discomfort or anxiety

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

physiological needs (food and water), safty and security, love and belonging, esteem → self actualization

crystalized intelligence

stuff/facts that you have learned

fluid intelligence

the ability to think abstractly, reason, and so on

critical/sensative period

an optimal period shorty after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

stereotype threat

a self confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

james lange

suggests that physical changes in the body happen first, which leads to the experience of emotions

schachter 2 factor

physiological arousal determines the strength of the emotion while cognition appraisal identifies the emotional label

cannon-bard

the theory that an emotion arousing stimulus triggers (1) a physiological response and (2) the experience of emotion

the thalamus and the cortex react simultaneously to deal/react to emotions

high achievement motivation

the need for excellence and significant accomplishment, despite what rewards may be offered after the achievement has been met.

tends to lead certain personality traits, persistence, delayed gradification, competativeness

erik erikson’s social stages of development

stage 1: trust vs mistrust

stage 2: autonomy vs shame and doubt

stage 3: initiative vs guilt

stage 4: industry vs inferiority

stage 5: identity vs role confusion

stage 6: intimacy vs isolation

stage 7: generativity vs stagnation

stage 8: integrity vs despair

serial position effect

our tendency to recall the first and last items in a list the best

taste aversion

learned association between a taste and a sickness

ex: you throw up after you eat sushi and now you avoid sushi even if it was not related to your illness

5 factor model (OCEAN)

created by paul costa and robert mccrae

openness: curiosity, accepting of others viewpoints

conscientiousness: self dicipline, willingness to achieve

extraversion: sociable, outgoing

agreeableness: empathy and pleasure

neuroticism: emotional stability

neofruedians

the psychologists that followed in frued’s footsteps and generally agreed with his teachings

libido

signifies the instinctual physiological or psychic energy associated with sexual urges (frued)

flynn effect

the observation that intelligence increases worldwide decade to decade

hallucinations/delusions

false sensory experiences such as seeing or hearing something in the absence of a stimulus

tardive dyskinesia

involuntary movements of the facial muscles and limbs; a possible side effect of long term use of antipsychotic drugs that contain certain dopamine receptors

rational emotive behavioral therapy

an approach that helps you identify irrational beliefs and negative thought patterns that may lead to emotional or behavioral issues

group think

the practice of thinking or making decisions as a group in a way that disencourages creativity or individual responsibility

deindividuation

the loss of self awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal or anonymity